Louis Blanc, Lamartine, Napoleon III and
Lanfrey. Quatrefages, Champollion, Lenormant,
Renan, Cuyier, Lavoisier, Laplace,
Saint Simon, Fourier and Bastiat are some
of the leading scholars and scientists into
whose work we cannot go. The two greatest
philosophers of this period were Victor
Cousin and Auguste Comte, while Taine
and Sainte-Beuve perhaps were its greatest
critics. See Demogeot's History of French
Literature.
Spanish Literature
The famous Poem of the Cid, composed, probably, in the latter half of the 12th century, is a song of warlike deeds, picturesque and spirited. In the 15th century appeared romances of chivalry and ballads. The Amadis of Gaul, first and best of books of chivalry, contains passages of great beauty. Spanish ballads were handed down orally from generation to generation, the great mass being gathered in the 16th and 17th centuries. The most interesting are those which celebrate the national heroes and the Moorish champions against whom they fought. At the end of the 15th century appeared Celestina, novel and drama in one, which soon became most popular and was read in translation throughout Europe.
Garcilaso de la Vega, writing in the first half of the 16th century, left at his early death a small collection of the most beautiful poetry in the language. In this period the best Spanish lyrics were written, one lyric writer, Herrera, being entitled to a high place among European poets. Just when the romance of chivalry was dying a natural death, Cervantes killed it by the fun poked at it in his famous Don Quixote, which, with its quaint humor and deep insight into human nature, is the best known and best loved of Spanish books. Lope de Vega, who lived at the same time as Cervantes, was called the prodigy of nature because of the mass and variety of his works. He is best known by his dramas, of which he wrote over 2,000. Calderon's plays are noted more for their fine poetry than as dramas. Molina and Moreto, as good playwrights but not as good poets as Lope de Vega and Calderon, are only two among many dramatists of ability in the golden age of Cervantes. At the end of the 17th century Spanish power and literature sank together and completely. Among recent books Juan Valera's Pepita Ximenez is one of the best novels of the century. See Ticknor's History of Spanish Literature.
Portuguese Literature
The best early chronicle of Portugal is that of Fernam Lopez (1380-1459). The oldest and still the finest tragedy is the Ines de Castro of Antonio de Ferreira (1528-69). The national pride and glory, deeply stirred by the discoveries and conquests of the nation in Asia, Africa and America, found expression in the works of Portugal's one really great poet, Camoens (1524-80). His great work is The Lusiads, which, together with his sonnets, songs and dramas, show a breadth of genius that places him in the foremost rank of European poets. With Camoens Portuguese literature reached its height. The only other writers before the 19th century who are at all noteworthy are the historians, among them De Barros (1496-1570), who wrote The Conquest of the Indies, and Brandao, who wrote The Lusitanian Monarchy. Two writers at the beginning of the 19th century wrote good poetry, F. M. do Nascimento, noted for his lyrics, and Manoel du Bocage, whose sonnets are the finest in the language. Herculano was something of a poet, but is better known as one of Portugal's finest historians. Brazilian writers have also made their mark. Of the poets, besides the two Barposas, should be mentioned Magelhaens, the most national of them all. The leading historian is Varnhagen, who wrote The General History of Brazil. See Bouterwek's History of Spanish and Portuguese Literature.
Finnish Literature
By 1642 the translation of the Bible into Finnish, which had been begun in the 16th century, was completed. There was no written literature before this, but in 1835 Dr. Elias Lönnrot gave to the world Finland's famous epic of Kalevala, popular songs taken from the lips of the peasantry during many years of research and wandering. These songs had been handed down by singers, who sang to the sound of the kantela, a sort of rude harp. The style of Kalevala may be judged from Hiawatha, which is an imitation of the Finnish poem. The great poet and dramatist of Finland was Runeberg (1804-77).
Dutch Literature
Hooft (1581-1647) was the first writer to create a good prose Dutch. He was noted also as a poet and playwright. Vondel (1587-1679) is held to be the greatest poet of Holland, and wrote dramas that are still performed. But his popularity was not equal to that of Jakob Cats (1577-1660), whose maxims for a long time, with the Bible, were the only book found in every cottage. One of Cats' followers, Van der Goes, wrote a beautiful poem on Amsterdam. Erasmus, Boerhaave, Grotius and Spinoza, who wished to be read beyond the borders of their own land, wrote in Latin, and so their works hardly belong to Dutch literature. Bilderdijk's great epic poem, The Destruction of the First World, is the best work of the 18th century, though Helmer's patriotic songs against the French were very popular. Schimmel is noted for his dramas, and Beets for his Camera Obscura and other tales. Another popular novelist is Van
