ALASKA (see 1.472). The most important events in the history of Alaska in the ten years ending with 1920 were:—(1) the extension of surveys and investigations of resources over nearly half of the total area (586,400 sq. m.)[1]; (2) the change in the public land policy, which no longer prohibited the utilization of Alaska's coal, petroleum and water powers; (3) the granting of a measure of home rule to the people of Alaska; (4) the improvement of transportation by the construction of a Government railway from an open port on the Pacific to navigable waters on the Yukon river, by the construction of many wagon roads (total roads and trails 4,900 m.) and by the installation of many lights and other aids to navigation (total 547); and (5) the great advance of her copper and salmon-fishing industries, and of gold mining until 1916.
Public Land Policy.—The political history of Alaska has largely centred in a struggle for more liberal land laws. In early days it had been considered for the best interests of Alaska to transfer the lands to private ownership as quickly as possible without too close a scrutiny of the means employed. This policy was completely reversed as a result of the conservation movement inaugurated under President Roosevelt. The aim of the movement, as first defined, was to prevent waste of natural resources; but this issue proving too academic to make a popular appeal, it gradually veered to a protest against corporate control of lands and resources. Though supported in the beginning by the best element in the nation, it ultimately became involved in the bitter struggle between the Roosevelt and Taft wings of the Republican party. As practically all the lands of the Territory were still owned by the Government, the withholding of the most valuable of these from settlement and development played havoc with her industries. Curiously enough, the most ardent of the conservationists failed to recognize the urgent importance of conserving the salmon and halibut fisheries. As it was, the withdrawal of coal, oil and good timber lands as well as of water powers left the Territory with only metalliferous deposits and fisheries on which to base its industries. A very important by-product of the conservation movement was the development at Washington of a mania for the establishment of reservations in Alaska. In this way there were set aside for various purposes, exclusive of mineral or forest withdrawals, some 40,000 sq. miles. For many years the Alaska conservation issue remained at a deadlock between the executive and legislative branches of the Government. Meanwhile Alaskan industries languished. With an abundant supply of fuel close at hand, she was forced to import coal and petroleum at great cost; her pulp wood was rotting in the forest, her water powers were undeveloped. Only gold- and copper-mining and salmon-fishing increased. Finally during the Wilson administration a leasing policy for coal and oil lands and water powers was established by law. At about the same time the shortage of paper had a liberalizing influence on the regulations relating to the sale of timber from the national forest. In 1921 the new laws were too recent to allow an estimate of their effect.
Government.—The struggle of Alaska to attain representation in Washington, lasting nearly 40 years, resulted in 1906 in the authorization of an elected delegate to Congress. At each biennial election which followed, home rule was the only important issue, until finally in 1912 an Act was passed granting a territorial government. This continued the governor as a presidential appointee, and (unwisely, though in accord with American tradition) provided for a bi-cameral Legislature. The upper chamber, or Senate, consisted of two senators from each of the four judicial districts, serving four years. Sixteen representatives formed the lower chamber, or House of Representatives, four elected for two years from each judicial district. This equal representation for each of the judicial districts gave the less-populated areas of the interior an unjust preponderance in the Legislature, and in many instances worked against the best interests of the Territory as a whole. Congress in the organic Act expressly retained the right of repealing all laws enacted by the Alaska Legislature. Furthermore, the Territory was denied the right to enact laws relating to the excise, game, fish, fur-bearing animals, or the existing Federal licence tax. It was provided that the capital should be at Juneau. The first session of the territorial Legislature was in March 1913, and the first law passed gave the franchise to women. Since that date the most important legislation has related to mining, hours of labour, workmen's compensation, banking and education. Heavy taxes were also imposed on the salmon-fishing industry, and from these the Territory derived a large part of its income. In 1916 the Legislature authorized a plebiscite on the prohibition of the sale, transportation and manufacture of all alcoholic beverages. The vote was in the affirmative by 7,958 to 4,431. As the Legislature had no power to change the excise law, a petition was submitted to Congress, which passed a dry law for Alaska in 1917.
Education.—The white schools of Alaska were in 1920 under territorial management and were supported by local taxes. Even most of the small settlements had schools, and five of the larger towns supported high schools. The Territory founded an agricultural and mining college at Fairbanks in 1918, but as funds were appropriated only for the erection of a building, the school had not been opened up to 1920. In 1919 there were 62 white schools in the Territory, with 147 teachers and 2,713 pupils. The education of Alaskan Indians and Eskimos was in the hands of Federal agencies. In 1919 there were in the Territory 70 Indian schools, too few to accommodate the children of the 25,000 natives. The Federal Government also made some provision for medical service for the natives, and maintained six small hospitals for the purpose. In addition to the Government schools, about 35 sectarian missions were maintained by various churches for the benefit of the natives. Many of these had boarding-schools and a few had hospitals.
Population.—In 1920 the pop. was 54,899, a decrease of 9,457, or 14.7%, from 64,356 in 1910. The whites numbered 29,000, as against 36,400 in 1910; the Indians and Eskimos 25,000, as against 25,331 in 1910; and the balance was of Mongolian and other races. Juneau, the capital and an important mining centre, was the largest town, with a pop. of 3,058. Ketchikan, the most important fishing centre, had 2,458. Anchorage and Seward, on the Government railway, had respectively 1,685 and 652. Cordova, the coastal terminus of the Copper River railroad, had 955. Fairbanks, the chief mining town of the interior, had 1,155. Nome, on the Seward peninsula, had 852. The white population of Alaska steadily increased until 1915, when it exceeded 40,000. Subsequent losses were due to: (1) enrolment in military service of about 3,500 men, few of whom returned; (2) high wages in the States; and (3) decrease in the gold-mining industry. While in 1915 about 9,600 men were employed in Alaska mines, there were only about 3,000 in 1920. In addition to the permanent residents of Alaska, between 25,000 and 30,000 men annually visit the Territory to find employment, chiefly in fishing, but also in mining. There were also 2,000 or 3,000 tourists each summer.
Mountaineering.—The mountain ranges include a number of the highest peaks on the continent, which have exercised a fascination for the mountaineer. Many unsuccessful attempts were made to reach the summit of Mt. St. Elias (18,024 ft.) before the Italian Duke of the Abruzzi finally succeeded in 1897. Mount Wrangell, Alaska's highest volcano (14,005 ft.), was ascended by Robert Dunn in 1908; and in 1912 Dora Keen climbed Mt. Blackburn (16,140 ft.). Several attempts were made between 1903 and 1910 to climb Mt. McKinley, the highest peak in North America. William Taylor and Peter Anderson, prospectors, reached the summit of the N. peak (20,000 ft.) in 1910, and Hudson Stuck and Harry P. Karsten the summit of the S. peak (20,300 ft), in 1912. Katmai volcano, in the central part of the Alaska peninsula, had been entirely dormant for more than a century previous to 1912. On June 6 of that year, without previous warning, the top of the volcano blew off and ejecta were thrown for at least 1,500 m., while the fine volcanic dust encircled the world in the upper atmosphere. Though one of the greatest eruptions in historic times, it caused no loss of life, because the ejecta fell chiefly on the sea and in uninhabited regions.
Railways.—At the close of 1910 there were 371 m. of railway in Alaska. This included 20 m. of the White Pass Railroad (narrow gauge) which ran inland from Skagway across the international boundary to White Horse in the Canadian Yukon (110 miles). This line, while primarily serving Canadian territory, gave access during the open season of navigation to the settlements on the lower Yukon. The Copper River & North-Western Railroad (standard gauge),
extending from Cordova on the coast to the Chitina copper belt (196 m.), was completed in 1910. Another line, the Alaska Northern Railroad (standard gauge), was built for 71 m. from the town of Seward, and then went into bankruptcy. A narrow-gauge railway 45 m. in length, connecting the town of Fairbanks with the goldmines, was completed in 1904, and was later purchased by the Government. About 130 m. of railway were laid in various parts of the Seward peninsula and subsequently abandoned. In 1912 Congress authorized a special commission to report upon the Alaska railway situation. The commission recommended that 733 m. of railway be built, estimated to cost $35,000,000. The project included two lines: one to extend from Cordova to Fairbanks, using the Copper River railroad, with a branch to the Bering River coal-field; the other to run from Seward (utilizing the existing stub line) through the lower Susitna valley to navigable waters of the Kuskokwim river, with a branch into the Matanuska coal-field. In 1914 authorization for not more than 1,000 m. of railway construction, the cost limited to $35,000,000, was granted by Congress. A new commission was then appointed, and after extensive surveys confirmed in general the former estimate of cost. In 1915 the administration announced the selection of a railway route from Seward to Fairbanks. The estimated cost of this was about twice as much as for the route from Cordova to Fairbanks. Railway construction was begun in 1916, and by 1920 383 m. out of a total of 467 m. had been completed. The entire system was to be finished by 1923. The choice of the more expensive route and a policy of using only construction of the highest type brought the cost, at war prices, up to $52,000,000, with a probability that it would cost several millions more.
Commerce.—The value of the total products of Alaska from the annexation in 1867 to the close of 1920 was more than $1,000,000,000. In 1919 Alaska produced minerals, furs, fish, etc., to the value of $71,000,000. During the same year the value of her imports was $38,925,000, of which $1,449,000 was for merchandise from foreign countries. In 1919 25 American vessels (tonnage 32,444) and 5 Canadian vessels (tonnage 4,870) were operated as common carriers to Alaska ports. These carried 295,490 tons of freight and 32,803 passengers northbound, and 278,200 tons of freight and 31,717 passengers southbound. In the same year a total of 370 private vessels (tonnage 118,169), chiefly engaged in fisheries, were operated in the Alaska service and carried a total of 465,000 tons of freight (north- and southbound). Nine river steamers were operated on the Yukon in the summer of 1919. These carried a total of 9,690 tons of freight and 1,370 through-passengers. One steamer was operated on the Kuskokwim river in 1919.
Mining.—From its small beginning at Juneau in 1880 up to the close of 1920 Alaska mining yielded a total value of $460,000,000. Of this 96% is to be credited to gold and copper deposits. But the mines have also produced silver, platinum, palladium, tin, lead, antimony, tungsten, chromite, coal, petroleum, marble, gypsum, graphite, barite and sulphur; and development work was done on deposits carrying nickel, iron and molybdenite. The value of the total annual mineral production rose from $16,890,000 in 1910 to $22,000,000 in 1920. Alaska mines have produced $320,000,000 worth of gold, of which $220,000,000 is to be credited to the placers. The largest gold production of any one year (1906) was $22,000,000. Since 1916, when the value of the gold output was $17,200,000, gold-mining has steadily declined, being only $8,000,000 in 1920. This decrease was due to the world-wide stagnation of gold-mines caused by the economic conditions brought on by the World War, and to this primarily is due the loss of population already referred to. In the past about 60% of Alaska's population has directly or indirectly been supported by the gold-mining industry. The U.S. Geological Survey estimated the value of the placer gold reserves of Alaska to be at least $360,000,000. This was in addition to the gold in vein deposits whose value could not be estimated. Auriferous lodes have been found in many parts of Alaska and developed in a small way. The only large gold lode mines were in south-eastern Alaska. Before the war there were near Juneau a number of large gold-mining enterprises operated at a lower cost than any others in the world. The small profits per ton were offset by the very large tonnage of ore. With the increased cost of labour and supplies mining greatly decreased at Juneau. Alaska copper-mining began in 1901, and up to the close of 1920 had produced 308,000 tons of metallic copper, valued at $127,000,000. Stimulated by the war demand and high prices, the mines made their largest output of copper in 1916 (59,900 tons). In 1920 the Territory produced 35,000 tons of copper, chiefly from four large mines. Copper ore's are widely distributed in Alaska, but most of the deposits are as yet inaccessible. The richest copper-mines thus far developed were those of the famous Kennicott group in the Chitina district. There are high-grade bituminous coals and some anthracite in both the Bering River and Matanuska fields, the latter within reach of the Government railway. All Alaska coal lands were withdrawn from entry in 1906, and patent was refused to all but a few claims previously entered. This interdict lasted until 1913, when a coal-leasing law was enacted. Coal-mining was still in the development stage in 1921, the entire production up to that time being only 300,000 tons. The output of 1920 was 70,000 tons, chiefly taken from a Government mine in the Matanuska field. The total
estimated reserves of coal in the surveyed fields of Alaska were 19,590,000,000 tons, of which 12,610,000,000 tons were lignite. Oil seepages were found at four localities on the Pacific seaboard: namely, Yakataga, Katalla, Iniskin Bay and Cold Bay, and also at several places near the N. Arctic coast. Only at Katalla, 60 m. E. of Cordova, was there any considerable drilling; here there was some oil production from the only petroleum claim to which patent had been granted. The withdrawal in 1911 of oil lands from entry stopped all development. In 1919 an oil leasing law was passed, and the development of producing fields was expected to follow. The total Alaska oil production to the close of 1920 was 60,000 barrels. Meanwhile, the Territory was consuming about 5,000,000 barrels of imported petroleum products annually. The only considerable production of tin in North America was from the York district on Bering Sea, near Cape Prince of Wales. A total of 1,000 tons of metallic tin had been mined since operations began in 1900. Alaska had produced in all about 9,800,000 oz. of silver and 5,000 tons of lead. This had practically all been won from gold and copper ores, for no large deposits of silver and lead had been developed. The mining of platinum and related minerals began in 1916, since which time about 1,500 oz. of those minerals had been produced. Demands of the World War led to the mining of some antimony, tungsten and chromite ores, but with the decreased value of these metals after the peace these operations ceased. Quicksilver mining had been carried on in a small way for many years. There were in south-eastern Alaska extensive deposits of high-grade marble which had been quarried on a large scale.
Fisheries.—The total value of fish products which had been marketed (1867-1919) was $418,000,000. In 1919 the output of the fisheries brought in $50,282,000, of which $45,000,000 was for salmon. Two small salmon canneries were built in Alaska in 1879; by 1919 the number had grown to 134. The fishing industry in 1919 employed 28,500 persons, of which 3,875 were Indians. Ninety per cent were engaged in salmon canning. The canneries can be operated during only from two to four months of the year, and much the larger part of the labour is imported. About 90% of the salmon caught in Alaskan waters are canned. In 1911 a total of 44,000,000 salmon were caught in Alaskan waters. This was increased in 1918 to 101,500,000, but fell to 58,000,000 in 1919. The enormous catch of 1918 was due to the stimulus of the war demands, and was undoubtedly in excess of the number that can be taken without permanently impairing the industry. In the early days of the salmon-fishing there were no restrictions, but, beginning in 1902, laws were passed to regulate the fisheries. The latest law (1906) was a great improvement on those preceding, but is by no means adequate. As an additional precautionary measure, hatcheries were established. There were five of these operated in 1919, at which were hatched and liberated 95,580,000 young salmon. In theory this should suffice to provide for the annual catch, but in practice only a small part survive as adult fish. The importance to the nation of conserving the Alaska salmon fisheries is indicated by the fact that in 1919 a total of 133,680,000 lb. of salmon were shipped from the Territory. The halibut fisheries are being depleted even more rapidly than the salmon. About 14,000,000 lb. are caught in Alaska and adjacent waters each year. The industry employs about 900 men and 90 small vessels. The halibut is all shipped fresh; much of it to the E. coast markets, and some to Europe. The number of cod on the Alaska cod banks is enormous, but as yet they have been little exploited. The total annual catch is between 10 and 11 million pounds, and the number of men employed is only a few hundred. Herring are found in great abundance as far north as Bering Strait. Whale-fishing along the coast, once a very important industry, is now limited to a few shore stations, where the catch is chiefly utilized for making fertilizer. There has been some canning of crabs and clams. The Alaska crab, which is the same species as that found in the Pacific waters farther south, is especially delicious.
Forest Products.—The national forests of Alaska include all the best timber lands (total area 20,000,000 acres). These are estimated to contain 77,000,000,000 ft. (B.M.) of timber suitable for lumber and pulp. Up to 1921 these forests had been used almost solely for local use, though some spruce had been exported for the manufacture of aeroplanes and other articles which require great toughness of fibre. It was officially estimated that these forests were capable of furnishing 2,000,000 cords of pulp-wood annually. A pulp-wood industry was developed in south-eastern Alaska in 1920.
Agriculture.—Alaska contains extensive farm lands adapted to raising the hardier varieties of wheat, oats, barley, rye, potatoes and other hardy vegetables, and forage crops. The most promising agricultural fields were in the Tanana and Susitna valleys, both tributary to the Government railroad. Tests in this region showed that sugar beets can be matured that contain a high percentage of sugar. Extensive areas of agricultural land are also found in other parts of the Yukon basin, and smaller patches here and there in the Pacific coastal region. The best-developed farming area was in the neighbourhood of Fairbanks, where about 2,000 acres of land were under cultivation. Here a hardy variety of wheat was matured during five successive years, and part of the flour for local consumption was made in a small mill. There is an abundance of good grazing land in the interior, but the period of winter feeding is about eight months. Up to 1921 the only cattle introduced were small
herds used for dairying. The Government recently began the experiment of introducing yaks into this region. The domesticated reindeer herds numbered in 1920 92,933 valued at $2,238,562 against 22,107 in 1910. This was the natural increase from the original 1,200 imported by the Government between 1892 and 1902. About 70% of the herd was owned by the Eskimo, for whose support the animals were first imported. Some reindeer meat had been exported, and the amount promised to increase.
Fur Industry.—Between 1867 and 1920 Alaska produced furs to the value of $90,400,000, of which $53,000,000 represents seal skins taken on the Pribilof Is. in Bering Sea. Up to 1910 the Government leased the seal-catching privileges on the Pribilof Is. to private corporations, which killed 2,320,028 seal and paid the Government $9,474,000 in royalties. The land killing of seal was properly restricted, but pelagic sealing by vessels of various nationalities destroyed an additional 976,000 seal. Pelagic sealing, being on the high seas, could not be controlled by the American Government; therefore a treaty was signed in 1911 between the United States, Great Britain, Russia and Japan, abolishing it and providing that the United States was to pay to Great Britain and Japan each 15% of the catch made on the islands. Since 1910 killing has been prohibited on the Pribilof Is. except by Federal agents. Thanks to these provisions, the seal herd has increased from 215,000 in 1912 to 524,000 in 1919. In the latter year the Government sold 19,157 dressed seal skins, for which $1,501,600 was received. The value of all furs shipped in 1919, besides the seal, was $l,500,000, of which over half is to be credited to the fox. Fur farming increased rapidly during the World War owing chiefly to the high value of furs. Most of the successful farms are on small islands, and practically all are devoted to the raising of foxes, though attempts have been made to raise both mink and marten.
See Maj.-Gen. A. W. Greely, Handbook of Alaska (1909); Annual Reports of Governor of Alaska (1910-20); Reports of 13th and 14th Census; Report of the International Boundary Commission between the United States and Canada: Arctic Ocean to Mt. St. Elias, with atlas (State Department, Washington, D. C., 1918); Railway Routes in Alaska: Report of Alaska Railroad Commission (1913); Report of the Alaska Engineering Commission (1916); Alfred H. Brooks, “The Development of Alaska by Government Railroads,” Quarterly Journal of Economics, vol. xxviii. (1914); Information about Alaska (Interior Department, 1917); J. L. McPherson, Alaska: Our Frontier Wonderland (Seattle Chamber of Commerce, 1921); Alfred H. Brooks, The Mt. McKinley Region (U.S. Geological Survey, 1911); Mountain Exploration in Alaska (American Alpine Club, 1914); Hudson Stuck, The Ascent of Denali (Mt. McKinley) (1914); A Winter Circuit of our Arctic Coast (1920); Ernest de K. Leffingwell, The Canning River Region, Northern Alaska (U.S. Geological Survey, 1919). See also the reports of U.S. Geological Survey of U.S. Department of Agriculture, of Commissioner of Fisheries, Annual Report of Commissioner of Education, Reports of Governor of Alaska (Washington, D.C.), and of Commissioner of Education for Territory of Alaska (Juneau, Alaska).
- ↑ Most of the inland surveys and investigations, as well as a part of those made along the shore line, were done by the U.S. Geological Survey, which between 1910 and 1920 mapped about 50,000 sq. miles. The Coast and Geodetic Survey charted the general features along the entire coast-line and covered about 10% of it in detailed surveys of important harbours and principal routes of navigation. In 1913 the International Boundary Commission completed the survey of the Alaska-Canadian boundary.