VII.
THE FUEL PROBLEM, BUILDING AND
TEXTILE MATERIALS.
With the vast and ever increasing demands made upon
materials which are the products of cultivated fields, for
food, for apparel, for furnishings and for cordage, better
soil management must grow more important as populations
multiply. With the increasing cost and ultimate exhaustion
of mineral fuel; with our timber vanishing rapidly
before the ever growing demands for lumber and paper;
with the inevitably slow growth of trees and the very
limited areas which the world can ever afford to devote
to forestry, the time must surely come when, in short
period rotations, there will be grown upon the farm
materials from which to manufacture not only paper and
the substitutes for lumber, but fuels as well. The complete
utilization of every stream which reaches the sea,
reinforced by the force of the winds and the energy of the
waves which may be transformed along the coast lines,
cannot fully meet the demands of the future for power
and heat; hence only in the event of science and engineering
skill becoming able to devise means for transforming
the unlimited energy of space through which we are ever
whirled, with an economy approximating that which crops
now exhibit, can good soil management be relieved of the
task of meeting a portion of the world's demand for power
and heat.
When these statements were made in 1905 we did not know that for centuries there had existed in China, Korea and Japan a density of population such as to require the extensive cultivation of crops for fuel and building material, as well as for fabrics, by the ordinary methods of tillage, and hence another of the many surprises we had was the solution these people had reached of their fuel problem and of how to keep warm. Their solution has been direct and the simplest possible. Dress to make fuel for warmth of body unnecessary, and burn the coarser stems of crops, such as cannot be eaten, fed to animals or otherwise made useful. These people still use what wood can be grown on the untillable land within transporting distance, and convert much wood into charcoal, making transportation over longer distances easier. The general use of mineral fuels, such as coal, coke, oils and gas, had been impossible to these as to every other people until within the last one hundred years. Coal, coke, oil and natural gas, however, have been locally used by the Chinese from very ancient times. For more than two thousand years brine from many deep wells in Szechwan province has been evaporated with heat generated by the burning of natural gas from wells, conveyed through bamboo stems to the pans and burned from iron terminals. In other sections of the same province much brine is evaporated over coal fires. Alexander Hosie estimates the production of salt in Szechwan province at more than 600 million pounds annually.
Coal is here used also to some extent for warming the houses, burned in pits sunk in the floor, the smoke escaping where it may. The same method of heating we saw in use in the post office at Yokohama during February. The fires were in large iron braziers more than two feet across the top, simply set about the room, three being in operation. Stoves for house warming are not used in dwellings in these countries.
In both China and Japan we saw coal dust put into the form and size of medium oranges by mixing it with a thin paste of clay. Charcoal is similarly molded, as seen in Fig. 72, using a byproduct from the manufacture of rice syrup for cementing. In Nanking we watched with much interest the manufacture of charcoal briquets by another method. A Chinese workman was seated upon the earth floor of a shop. By his side was a pile of powdered charcoal, a dish of rice syrup byproduct and a basin of the moistened charcoal powder. Between his legs was a heavy mass of iron containing a slightly conical mold two inches deep, two and a half inches across at the top and a heavy iron hammer weighing several pounds. In his left hand he held a short heavy ramming tool and with his right placed in the mold a pinch of the moistened charcoal; then followed three well directed blows from the hammer upon the ramming tool, compressing the charge of moistened, sticky charcoal into a very compact layer. Another pinch of charcoal was added and the process repeated until the mold was filled, when the briquet was forced out.
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Fig. 72.—Charcoal balls briquetted with rice water or clay, for use as fuel.
By this simplest possible mechanism, the man, utilizing
but a small part of his available energy, was subjecting
the charcoal to an enormous pressure such as we attain
only with the best hydraulic presses, and he was using
the principle of repeated small charges recently patented
and applied in our large and most efficient cotton and
hay presses, which permit much denser bales to be made
than is possible when large charges are added, and the
Chinese is here, as in a thousand other ways, thoroughly
sound in his application of mechanical principles. His output for the day was small but his patience seemed
unlimited. His arms and body, bared to the waist, showed
vigor and good feeding, while his face wore the look of
contentment.
With forty centuries of such inheritance coursing in the veins of four hundred millions of people, in a country possessed of such marvelous wealth of coal and water power, of forest and of agricultural possibilities, there should be a future speedily blossoming and ripening into all that is highest and best for such a nation. If they will retain their economies and their industry and use their energies to develop, direct and utilize the power in their streams and in their coal fields along the lines which science has now made possible to them, at the same time walking in paths of peace and virtue, there is little worth while which may not come to such a people.
A Shantung farmer in winter dress, Fig. 18, and the Kiangsu woman portrayed in Fig. 73, in corresponding costume, are typical illustrations of the manner in which food for body warmth is minimized and of the way the heat generated in the body is conserved. Observe his wadded and quilted frock, his trousers of similar goods tied about the ankle, with his feet clad in multiple socks and cloth shoes provided with thick felted soles. These types of dress, with the wadding, quilting, belting and tying, incorporate and confine as part of the effective material a large volume of air, thus securing without cost, much additional warmth without increasing the weight of the garments. Beneath these outer garments several under pieces of different weights are worn which greatly conserve the warmth during the coldest weather and make possible a wide range of adjustment to suit varying changes in temperature. It is doubtful if there could be devised a wardrobe suited to the conditions of these people at a smaller first cost and maintenance expense. Rev. E. A. Evans, of the China Inland Mission, for many years residing at Sunking in Szechwan, estimated that a farmer's wardrobe, once it was procured, could be maintained with an annual expenditure of $2.25 of our currency, this sum procuring the materials for both repairs and renewals.
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Fig. 73.—A Kiangsu country woman in winter dress.
The intense individual economy, extending to the smallest
matters, so universally practiced by these people, has
sustained the massive strength of the Mongolian nations
through their long history and this trait is seen in their
handling of the fuel problem, as it is in all other lines.
In the home of Mrs. Wu, owner and manager of a 25-acre
rice farm in Chekiang province, there was a masonry kang
seven by seven feet, about twenty-eight inches high, which
could be warmed in winter by building a fire within. The
top was fitted for mats to serve as couch by day and as
a place upon which to spread the bed at night. In the
Shantung province we visited the home of a prosperous farmer and here found two kangs in separate sleeping
apartments, both warmed by the waste heat from the
kitchen whose chimney flue passed horizontally under the
kangs before rising through the roof. These kangs were
wide enough to spread the beds upon, about thirty inches
high, and had been constructed from brick twelve inches
square and four inches thick, made from the clay subsoil
taken from the fields and worked into a plastic mass, mixed
with chaff and short straw, dried in the sun and then
laid in a mortar of the same material. These massive
kangs are thus capable of absorbing large amounts of the
waste heat from the kitchen during the day and of imparting
congenial warmth to the couches by day and to the
beds and sleeping apartments during the night. In some
Manchurian inns large compound kangs are so arranged
that the guests sleep heads together in double rows,
separated only by low dividing rails, securing the greatest
economy of fuel, providing the guests with places where
they may sit upon the moderately warmed fireplace, and
spread their beds when they retire.
The economy of the chimney beds does not end with the warmth conserved. The earth and straw brick, through the processes of fermentation and through shrinkage, become open and porous after three or four years of service, so that the draft is defective, giving annoyance from smoke, which requires their renewal. But the heat, the fermentation and the absorption of products of combustion have together transformed the comparatively infertile subsoil into what they regard as a valuable fertilizer and these discarded brick are used in the preparation of compost fertilizers for the fields. On account of this value of the discarded brick the large amount of labor involved in removing and rebuilding the kangs is not regarded altogether as labor lost.
Our own observations have shown that heating soils to dryness at a temperature of 110° C. greatly increases the freedom with which plant food may be recovered from them by the solvent power of water, and the same heating doubtless improves the physical and biological conditions of the soil as well. Nitrogen combined as ammonia, and phosphorus, potash and lime are all carried with the smoke or soot, mechanically in the draft and arrested upon the inner walls of the kangs or filter into the porous brick with the smoke, and thus add plant food directly to the soil. Soot from wood has been found to contain, as an average, 1.36 per cent of nitrogen; .51 per cent of phosphorus and 5.34 per cent of potassium. We practice burning straw and corn stalks in enormous quantities, to get them easily out of the way, thus scattering on the winds valuable plant food, thoughtlessly and lazily wasting where these people laboriously and religiously save. These are gains in addition to those which result from the formation of nitrates, soluble potash and other plant foods through fermentation. We saw many instances where these discarded brick were being used, both in Shantung and Chihli provinces, and it was common in walking through the streets of country villages to see piles of them, evidently recently removed.
The fuel grown on the farms consists of the stems of all agricultural crops which are to any extent woody, unless they can be put to some better use. Rice straw, cotton stems pulled by the roots after the seed has been gathered, the stems of windsor beans, those of rape and the millets, all pulled by the roots, and many other kinds, are brought to the market tied in bundles in the manner seen in Figs. 74, 75 and 76. These fuels are used for domestic purposes and for the burning of lime, brick, roofing tile and earthenware as well as in the manufacture of oil, tea, bean-curd and many other processes. In the home, when the meals are cooked with these light bulky fuels, it is the duty of some one, often one of the children, to sit on the floor and feed the fire with one hand while with the other a bellows is worked to secure sufficient draft.
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Fig. 74.—Boat loads of fuel, mainly bundles of rice straw and cotton stems, on Soochow creek, Shanghai.
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Fig. 75.—Cotton stem fuel being conveyed from the canals to city market stalls.
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Fig. 76.—Rice straw fuel being conveyed from canal boats to city market stalls.
The manufacture of cotton seed oil and cotton seed cake is one of the common family industries in China, and in one of these homes we saw rice hulls and rice straw being used as fuel. In the large low, one-story, tile-roofed building serving as store, warehouse, factory and dwelling, a family of four generations were at work, the grandfather supervising in the mill and the grandmother leading in the home and store where the cotton seed oil was being retailed for 22 cents per pound and the cotton seed cake at 33 cents, gold, per hundredweight. Back of the store and living rooms, in the mill compartment, three blindfolded water buffalo, each working a granite mill, were crushing and grinding the cotton seed. Three other buffalo, for relay service, were lying at rest or eating, awaiting their turn at the ten-hour working day. Two of the mills were horizontal granite burrs more than four feet in diameter, the upper one revolving once with each circuit made by the cow. The third mill was a pair of massive granite rollers, each five feet in diameter and two feet thick, joined on a very short horizontal axle which revolved on a circular stone plate about a vertical axis once with each circuit of the buffalo. Two men tended the three mills. After the cotton seed had been twice passed through the mills it was steamed to render the oil fluid and more readily expressed. The steamer consisted of two covered wooden hoops not unlike that seen in Fig. 77, provided with screen bottoms, and in these the meal was placed over openings in the top of an iron kettle of boiling water from which the steam was forced through the charge of meal. Each charge was weighed in a scoop balanced on the arm of a bamboo scale, thus securing a uniform weight for the cakes.
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Fig. 77.—Appliance for steaming tea leaves, used in Japan and the same in principle as used in China for steaming meal from which oil is to be expressed.
On the ground in front of the furnace sat a boy of twelve years steadily feeding rice chaff into the fire with
his left hand at the rate of about thirty charges per
minute, while with his right hand, and in perfect rhythm, he
drew back and forth the long plunger of a rectangular
box bellows, maintaining a forced draft for the fire. At
intervals the man who was bringing fuel fed into the
furnace a bundle of rice straw, thus giving the boy's left
arm a moment's respite. When the steaming has rendered
the oil sufficiently fluid the meal is transferred, hot, to
ten-inch hoops two inches deep, made of braided bamboo
strands, and is deftly tramped with the bare feet, while
hot, the operator steadying himself by a pair of hand bars.
After a stack of sixteen hoops, divided by a slight sifting
of chaff or short straw to separate the cakes, had been
completed these were taken to one of four pressmen, who
were kept busy in expressing the oil.
The presses consisted of two parallel timbers framed together, long enough to receive the sixteen hoops on edge above a gap between them. These cheeses of meal are subjected to an enormous pressure secured by means of three parallel lines of wedges forced against the follower each by an iron-bound master wedge, driven home with a heavy beetle weighing some twenty-five or thirty pounds. The lines of wedges were tightened in succession, the loosened line receiving an additional wedge to take up the slack after drawing back the master wedge, which was then driven home. To keep good the supply of wedges which are often crushed under the pressure a second boy, older than the one at the furnace, was working on the floor, shaping new ones, the broken wedges and the chips going to the furnace for fuel.
By this very simple, readily constructed and inexpensive mechanism enormous pressures were secured and when the operator had obtained the desired compression he lighted his pipe and sat down to smoke until the oil ceased dripping into the pit sunk in the floor beneath the press. In this interval the next series of cakes went to another press and the work thus kept up during the day. Six hundred and forty cakes was the average daily output of this family of eight men and two boys, with their six water buffalo.
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Fig. 78.—A dairy herd of water buffalo owned by a Chinese farmer who was supplying milk to foreigners in Shanghai.
The cotton seed cakes were being sold as feed, and a
near-by Chinese dairyman was using them for his herd
of forty water buffalo, seen in Fig. 78, producing milk
for the foreign trade in Shanghai. This herd of forty
cows, one of which was an albino, was giving an average
of but 200 catty of milk per day, or at the rate of six
and two-thirds pounds per head! The cows have extremely
small udders but the milk is very rich, as indicated
by an analysis made in the office of the Shanghai Board
of Health and obtained through the kindness of Dr. Arthur
Stanley. The milk showed a specific gravity of 1.028 and
contained 20.1 per cent total solids; 7.5 per cent fat;
4.2 per cent milk sugar and .8 per cent ash. In the
family of Rev. W. H. Hudson, of the Southern Presbyterian Mission, Kashing, whose very gracious hospitality
we enjoyed on two different occasions, the butter made
from the milk of two of these cows, one of which, with
her calf, is seen in Fig. 79, was used on the family table.
It was as white as lard or cottolene but the texture and
flavor were normal and far better than the Danish and
New Zealand products served at the hotels.
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Fig. 79.—Water buffalo and calf, Kashing, Chekiang province, China.
The milk produced at the Chinese dairy in Shanghai
was being sold in bottles holding two pounds, at the rate
of one dollar a bottle, or 43 cents, gold. This seems high
and there may have been misunderstanding on the part
of my interpreter but his answer to my question was that
the milk was being sold at one Shanghai dollar per bottle
holding one and a half catty, which, interpreted, is the
value given above.
But fuel from the stems of cultivated plants which are in part otherwise useful, is not sufficient to meet the needs of country and village, notwithstanding the intense economies practiced. Large areas of hill and mountain land are made to contribute their share, as we have seen in the south of China, where pine boughs were being used for firing the lime and cement kilns. At Tsingtao we saw the pine bough fuel on the backs of mules, Fig. 80, coming from the hills in Shantung province. Similar fuels were being used in Korea and we have photographs of large pine bough fuel stacks, taken in Japan at Funabashi, east from Tokyo.
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Fig. 80.—Pine bough fuel coming into Tsingtao from the Shantung hills, China.
The hill and mountain lands, wherever accessible to
the densely peopled plains, have long been cut over and
as regularly has afforestation been encouraged and
deliberately secured even through the transplanting of
nursery stock grown expressly for that purpose. We had
read so much regarding the reckless destruction of forests
in China and Japan and had seen so few old forest trees
except where these had been protected about temples,
graves or houses, that when Rev. R. A. Haden, of the
Elizabeth Blake hospital, near Soochow, insisted that the
Chinese were deliberate foresters and that they regularly grow trees for fuel, transplanting them when necessary to
secure a close and early stand, after the area had been
cleared, we were so much surprised that he generously
volunteered to accompany us westward on a two days
journey into the hill country where the practice could be
seen.
A family owning a houseboat and living upon it was engaged for the journey. This family consisted of a recently widowed father, his two sons, newly married, and a helper. They were to transport us and provide sleeping quarters for myself, Mr. Haden and a cook for the consideration of $3.00, Mexican, per day and to continue the journey through the night, leaving the day for observation in the hills.
The recent funeral had cost the father $100 and the wedding of the two sons $50 each, while the remodelling of the houseboat to meet the needs of the new family relations cost still another $100. To meet these expenses it had been necessary to borrow the full amount, $300. On $100 the father was paying 20 per cent interest; on $50 he was compelled to pay 50 per cent interest. The balance he had borrowed from friends without interest but with the understanding that he would return the favor should occasion be required.
Rev. A. E. Evans informed us that it is a common practice in China for neighbors to help one another in times of great financial stress. This is one of the methods: A neighbor may need 8000 cash. He prepares a feast and sends invitations to a hundred friends. They know there has been no death in his family and that there is no wedding, still it is understood that he is in need of money. The feast is prepared at a small expense, the invited guests come, each bringing eighty cash as a present. The recipient is expected to keep a careful record of contributing friends and to repay the sum. Another method is like this: For some reason a man needs to borrow 20,000 cash. He proposes to twenty of his friends that they organize a club to raise this sum. If the friends agree each pays 1000 cash to the organizing member. The balance of the club draw lots as to which member shall be number two, three, four, five, etc., designating the order in which payments shall be made. The man borrowing the money is then under obligation to see that these payments are met in full at the times agreed upon. Not infrequently a small rate of interest is charged.
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Fig. 81.—Residence houseboat used by family for carrying passengers on rivers and canals, China.
Rates of interest are very high in China, especially on
small sums where securities are not the best. Mr. Evans
informs me that two per cent per month is low and thirty
per cent per annum is very commonly collected. Such
obligations are often never met but they do not outlaw
and may descend from father to son.
The boat cost $292.40 in U. S. currency; the yearly earning was $107.50 to $120.40. The funeral cost $43 and 154 The Fuel Prohlcm, Building and Textile Materials. $43 more was required for the wedding of the two sons. They were receiving for the services of six people $1.29 per day. An engagement for two weeks or a month could have been made for materially lower rates and their average daily earning, on the basis of three hundred days service in the year, and the $120.40 total earning, would be only 40.13 cents, less than seven cents each, hence their trip with us was two of their banner days. Foreigners in Shanghai and other cities frequently engage such houseboat service for two weeks or a month of travel on the canals and rivers, finding it a very enjoyable as well as inexpensive way of having a picnic outing.
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Fig. 82.—Forest cutting in narrow strips on steep hillsides west of Soochow, China.
On reaching the hill lands the next morning there were
such scenes as shown in Fig. 82, where the strips of tree
growth, varying from two to ten years, stretched directly
up the slope, often in strong contrast on account of the
straight boundaries and different ages of the timber. Some of these long narrow holdings were less than two rods
wide and on one of these only recently cut, up which
we walked for considerable distance, the young pine were
springing up in goodly numbers. As many as eighteen
young trees were counted on a width of six feet across
the strip of thirty feet wide. On this area everything
had been recently cut clean. Even stumps and the large
roots were dug and saved for fuel.
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Fig. 83.—Bundles of pine and oak bough fuel gathered on the hill lands west of Soochow, Kiangsu, China.
In Fig. 83 are seen bundles of fuel from such a strip,
just brought into the village, the boughs retaining the
leaves although the fuel had been dried. The roots, too,
are tied in with the limbs so that everything is saved.
On our walk to the hills we passed many people bringing
their loads of fuel swinging from carrying poles on their
shoulders.
Inquiries regarding the afforestation of these strips of hillside showed that the extensive digging necessitated by the recovery of the roots usually caused new trees to spring up quickly as volunteers from scattered seed and from the roots, so that planting was not generally required. Talking with a group of people as to where we could see some of the trees used for replanting the hillsides, a lad of seven years was first to understand and volunteered to conduct us to a planting. This he did and was overjoyed on receipt of a trifle for his services. One of these little pine nurseries is seen in Fig. 84, many being planted in suitable places through the woods. The lad led us to two such locations with whose whereabouts he was evidently very familiar, although they were considerable distance from the path and far from home. These small trees are used in filling in places where the volunteer growth has not been sufficiently close. A strong herbaceous growth usually springs up quickly on these newly cleared lands and this too is cut for fuel or for use in making compost or as green manure.
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Fig. 84.—Tiny nursery of small pines growing among ferns in a shady wood, for replanting cut-over hillsides.
The grass which grows on the grave lands, if not fed off, is also cut and saved for fuel. We saw several instances of this outside of Shanghai, one where a mother with her daughter, provided with rake, sickle, basket and bag, were gathering the dry stubble and grass of the previous season, from the grave lands where there was less than could be found on our closely mowed meadows. In Fig. 85 may be seen a man who has just returned with such a load, and in his hand is the typical rake of the Far East, made by simply bending bamboo splints, claw-shape, and securing them as seen in the engraving.
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Fig. 85.—Dried grass fuel gathered on grave lands, Shanghai.
In the Shantung province, in Chihli and in Manchuria,
millet stems, especially those of the great kaoliang or
sorghum, are extensively used for fuel and for building
as well as for screens, fences and matting. At Mukden the kaoliang was selling as fuel at $2.70 to $3.00, Mexican,
for a 100-bundle load of stalks, weighing seven catty to
the bundle. The yield per acre of kaoliang fuel amounts
to 5600 pounds and the stalks are eight to twelve feet long,
so that when carried on the backs of mules or horses the
animals are nearly hidden by the load. The price paid
for plant stem fuel from agricultural crops, in different
parts of China and Japan, ranged from $1.30 to $2.85,
U. S. currency, per ton. The price of anthracite coal at
Nanking was $7.76 per ton. Taking the weight of dry
oak wood at 3500 pounds per cord, the plant stem fuel,
for equal weight, was selling at $2.28 to $5.00.
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Fig. 86.—Bundles of kaoliang fuel coming into Kiaochow market, Shuantung.
Large amounts of wood are converted into charcoal in
these countries and sent to market baled in rough matting or in basketwork cases woven from small brush and holding
two to two and a half bushels. When such wood is
not converted into charcoal it is sawed into one or two-foot
lengths, split and marketed tied in bundles, as seen in
Fig. 77.
Along the Mukden-Antung railway in Manchuria fuel was also being shipped in four-foot lengths, in the form of cordwood. In Korea cattle were provided with a peculiar saddle for carrying wood in four-foot sticks laid blanket-fashion over the animal, extending far down on their sides. Thus was it brought from the hills to the railway station. This wood, as in Manchuria, was cut from small trees. In Korea, as in most parts of China where we visited, the tree growth over the hills was generally scattering and thin on the ground wherever there was not individual ownership in small holdings. Under and among the scattering pine there were oak in many cases, but these were always small, evidently not more than two or three years standing, and appearing to have been repeatedly cut back. It was in Korea that we saw so many instances of young leafy oak boughs brought to the rice fields and used as green manure.
There was abundant evidence of periodic cutting between Mukden and Antung in Manchuria; between Wiju and Fusan in Korea; and throughout most of our journey in Japan; from Nagasaki to Moji and from Shimonoseki to Yokohama. In all of these countries afforestation takes place quickly and the cuttings on private holdings are made once in ten, twenty or twenty-five years. When the wood is sold to those coming for it the takers pay at the rate of 40 sen per one horse load of forty kan, or 330 pounds, such as is seen in Fig. 87. Director Ono, of the Akashi Experiment station, informed us that such fuel loads in that prefecture, where the wood is cut once in ten years, bring returns amounting to about $40 per acre for the ten-year crop. This land was worth $40 per acre but when they are suitable for orange groves they sell for $600 per acre. Mushroom culture is extensively practiced under the shade of some of these wooded areas, yielding under favorable conditions at the rate of $100 per acre.
The forest covered area in Japan exclusive of Formosa and Karafuto, amounts to a total of 54,196,728 acres, less than twenty millions of which are in private holdings, the balance belonging to the state and to the Imperial Crown.
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Fig. 87.—Japanese fuel coming down from the wooded hills.
In all of these countries there has been an extensive
general use of materials other than wood for building
purposes and very many of the substitutes for lumber are
products grown on the cultivated fields. The use of rice
straw for roofing, as seen in the Hakone village, Fig. 8, is
very general throughout the rice growing districts, and
even the sides of houses may be similarly thatched, as was
observed in the Canton delta region, such a construction
being warm for winter and cool for summer. The life
of these thatched roofs, however, is short and they must
be renewed as often as every three to five years but the old straw is highly prized as fertilizer for the fields on
which it is grown, or it may serve as fuel, the ashes only
going to the fields.
Burned clay tile, especially for the cities and public buildings, are very extensively used for roofing, clay being abundant and near at hand. In Chihli and in Manchuria millet and sorghum stems, used alone or plastered, as in Fig. 88, with a mud mortar, sometimes mixed with lime, cover the roofs of vast numbers of the dwellings outside the larger cities.
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Fig. 88.—Millet-thatched roofs plastered with earth: mud chimneys; walls of houses plastered with mud, and winter storage pits for vegetables built of clay and chaff mortar.
At Chiao Tou in Manchuria we saw the building of the
thatched millet roofs and the use of kaoliang stems as
lumber. Rafters were set in the usual way and covered with
a layer about two inches thick of the long kaoliang stems
stripped of their leaves and tops. These were tied
together and to the rafters with twine, thus forming a sort of
matting. A layer of thin clay mortar was then spread over
the surface and well trowelled until it began to show on
the under side. Over this was applied a thatch of small
millet stems bound in bundles eight inches thick, cut square across the butts to eighteen inches in length. They
were dipped in water and laid in courses after the manner
of shingles but the butts of the stems are driven forward
to a slope which obliterates the shoulder, making the courses
invisible. In the better houses this thatching may be
plastered with earth mortar or with an earth-lime mortar,
which is less liable to wash in heavy rain.
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Fig. 89.—Air-dried earth brick for house building.
The walls of the house we saw building were also sided
with the long, large kaoliang stems. An ordinary frame
with posts and girts about three feet apart had been
erected, on sills and with plates carrying the roof.
Standing vertically against the girts and tied to them,
forming a close layer, were the kaoliang stems. These
were plastered outside and in with a layer of thin earth
mortar. A similar layer of stems, set up on the inside of
the girts and similarly plastered, formed the inner face
of the wall of the house, leaving dead air spaces between
the girts.
Brick made from earth are very extensively used for house building, chaff and short straw being used as a binding material, the brick being simply dried in the sun, as seen in Fig. 89. A house in the process of building, where the brick were being used, is seen in Fig. 90. The foundation of the dwelling, it will be observed, was laid with well-formed hard-burned brick, these being necessary to prevent capillary moisture from the ground being drawn up and soften the earth brick, making the wall unsafe.
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Fig. 90.—Foundation of dwelling, consisting of hard-burned brick; balance of wall to be sun-dried earth brick, seen in Fig. 89.
Several kilns for burning brick, built of clay and earth,
were passed in our journey up the Pei ho, and stacked
about them, covering an area of more than eight hundred
feet back from the river, were bundles of the kaoliang stems
to serve as fuel in the kilns.
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Fig. 91.—Earth and clay brick kiln on the bank of the Pei ho, using sorghum stems for fuel.
The extensive use of the unburned brick is necessitated by the difficulty of obtaining fuel, and various methods are adopted to reduce the number of burned brick required in construction. One of these devices is shown in Fig. 79, where the city wall surrounding Kashing is constructed of alternate courses of four layers of burned brick separated by layers of simple earth concrete.
In addition to the multiple-function, farm-grown crops used for food, fuel and building material, there is a large acreage devoted to the growing of textile and fiber products and enormous quantities of these are produced annually. In Japan, where some fifty millions of people are chiefly fed on the produce of little more than 21,000 square miles of cultivated land, there was grown in 1906 more than 75,500,000 pounds of cotton, hemp, flax and China grass textile stock, occupying 76,700 acres of the cultivated land. On 141,000 other acres there grew 115,000,000 pounds of paper mulberry and Mitsumata, materials used in the manufacture of paper. From still another 14,000 acres were taken 92,000,000 pounds of matting stuff, while more than 957,000 acres were occupied by mulberry trees for the feeding of silkworms, yielding to Japan 22,389,798 pounds of silk. Here are more than 300,000,000 pounds of fiber and textile stuff taken from 1860 square miles of the cultivated land, cutting down the food producing area to
19,263 square miles and this area is made still smaller by devoting 123,000 acres to tea, these producing in 1906 58,900,000 pounds, worth nearly five million dollars. Nor do these statements express the full measure of the producing power of the 21,321 square miles of cultivated land, for, in addition to the food and other materials named, there were also made $2,365,000 worth of braid from straw and wood shavings; $6,000,000 worth of rice straw bags, packing cases and matting; and $1,085,000 worth of wares from bamboo, willow and vine. As illustrating the intense home industry of these people we may consider the fact that the 5,453,309 households of farmers in Japan produced in 1906, in their homes as subsidiary work, $20,527,000 worth of manufactured articles. If correspondingly exact statistical data were available from China and Korea a similarly full utilization of cultural possibilities would be revealed there.
This marvelous heritage of economy, industry and thrift, bred of the stress of centuries, must not be permitted to lose virility through contact with western wasteful practices, now exalted to seeming virtues through the dazzling brilliancy of mechanical achievements. More and more must labor be dignified in all homes alike, and economy, industry and thrift become inherited impulses compelling and satisfying.
Cheap, rapid, long distance transportation, already well started in these countries, will bring with it a fuller utilization of the large stores of coal and mineral wealth and of the enormous available water power, and as a result there will come some temporary lessening of the stress for fuel and with better forest management some relief along the lines of building materials. But the time is not a century distant when, throughout the world, a fuller, better development must take place along the lines of these most far-reaching and fundamental practices so long and so effectively followed by the Mongolian races in China, Korea and Japan. When the enormous water-power of these countries has been harnessed and brought into the foot-hills
and down upon the margins of the valleys and plains in the form of electric current, let it, if possible, be in a large measure so distributed as to become available in the country village homes to lighten the burden and lessen the human drudgery and yet increase the efficiency of the human effort now so well bestowed upon subsidiary manufactures under the guidance and initiative of the home, where there may be room to breathe and for children to come up to manhood and womanhood in the best conditions possible, rather than in enormous congested factories.