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History of Zoroastrianism/Chapter 21

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by Maneckji Nusservanji Dhalla
XXI. Amesha Spentas
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2810454History of Zoroastrianism — XXI. Amesha SpentasManeckji Nusservanji Dhalla
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CHAPTER XXI

AMESHA SPENTAS

The archangels. The higher celestial beings that had not expressly acquired a distinguishing name of their own in the Gathas are now designated as the Amesha Spentas, or 'Holy Immortal Ones.' They are thus addressed for the first time in the Haptanghaiti, or the Yasna of Seven Chapters, the earliest prose composition of the Avestan period, though still made in the Gathic dialect.[1] They are all created by Ahura Mazda.[2] Plutarch and Strabo refer to them in their works.[3] With the godhead at the pinnacle they form a heptad and are henceforth mentioned as the seven Holy Immortal Ones.[4] Severally they are both male and female.[5] Vohu Manah, Asha Vahishta, and Khshathra Vairya are conceived of as masculine beings, though neuter in grammatical gender; Spenta Armaiti is pictured as a feminine concept; and Haurvatat and Ameretat are treated as masculine beings, though their grammatical gender is feminine. In a paramount degree they are all of one thought, one word, and one deed; their father and lord is the creator Ahura Mazda.[6] They look into one another's souls;[7] and they each have their special Fravashi.[8] Garonmana, the highest heaven, is their dwelling-place, and there they occupy the golden seats that belong to spirits in the realm supernal.[9] Their sacred names are the most mighty, most glorious, and the most victorious of the spells.[10] To utter their name is synonymous with efficacy and power. Yasht 2 is devoted to their praise.

​Their attributes. The Amesha Spentas are the ever-living and the ever-helping ones;[11] they are the wise ones, and good rulers.[12] It is they that are the shining ones, of efficacious eyes, exalted, mighty, valiant, imperishable, and righteous.[13] They are the makers, rulers, fashioners, guardians, protectors, and preservers of the creation of Mazda,[14] and Mazda has given them beautiful forms.[15]

Their work. The archangels hold their celestial councils on the heights of the heavens.[16] From there they come down to the seven zones into which the world was divided according to the Avesta,[17] and rule over the realms of earth.[18] They are naturally invited to the sacrifice,[19] and offerings are placed by the devout for them to accept.[20] The faithful pray that the Amesha Spentas may visit and enjoy sacrifices in their houses,[21] for shining is the path by which they descend to earth to receive the libations offered in their honour.[22] Even Mithra as a Godlike embodiment sacrificed unto them,[23] and for him they have made a dwelling.[24] They are of one accord with the sun;[25] and they gather together the light of the moon and pour it down upon the earth.[26] They are the divine ones who help in bringing about the final restoration of the world.[27] Each of them will smite his opponent at the time of the resurrection.[28]

Zarathushtra the first among mortals to sacrifice unto the Amesha Spentas. Mazda asks his prophet to invoke the Amesha Spentas, even though he could not behold them with his eyes.[29] Zarathushtra follows Mazda's behests; and he is the first man to invoke them,[30] a spiritual predecessor having been Sraosha. For that reason the faithful sacrifice unto the Amesha Spentas with love and joy,[31] and pray to them for help and protection.[32] Their praise and sacrifice form one of the cardinal articles of ​faith.[33] Hence it is that we find in the oft-repeated formulas of the Later Avestan texts that sacrifice, invocation, propitiation, and glorification are offered to them for the furtherance of prosperity in the world of righteousness.[34] Nor must it be forgotten that in his benedictions upon King Vishtaspa the prophet invokes upon his royal patron the blessings of brightness, glory, riches, swift horses, and good sons that come as a benign gift from the archangels.[35] The ceremonials performed in honour of the Amesha Spentas by unholy priests delight them not;[36] on the other hand, distress and harm flee from that worshipper whose homage has reached them.[37] When their loving votary performs his devotions and finds his spirit inflamed by their love, he forthwith dedicates to them the very life of his body and all his earthly possessions.[38]

Vohu Manah

His place in the Later Avesta. As the first in the creation of Ahura Mazda, Vohu Manah retains his pre-eminent position in the Later Avestan period. He occupies his seat next to Ahura Mazda in the celestial council. The other archangels live in him.[39] In some cases Vohu Manah does not stand as the name of the archangel, but simply connotes its ordinary meaning good mind or thought. In fact, as in the Gathas, there is a subtlety of meaning that makes it difficult to decide in translation whether the concept or the archangel is intended. In Vd. 19. 20, 23-25 the term designates a good man or even clean clothes.

Vohu Manah guards wisdom. Vohu Manah's khratu, or wisdom, which occurs in the Gathas, is now classified in the later texts into two distinct types, āsna khratu, 'innate wisdom,' and gaoshosruta khratu, 'acquired wisdom.' These two types of knowledge are spoken of as objects worthy of sacrifice and propitiation.[40] Ahura Mazda accordingly asks Zarathushtra to seek knowledge all the night long,[41] because the true priest and ​his disciples work by day and by night for the increase of knowledge.[42] Vohu Manah rejoices in man's endeavour to wrest from nature her secrets.

His work. When the Evil Spirit first attacked creation Vohu Manah came to its succour.[43] Zarathushtra asks Ahura Mazda to teach him the laws of both the worlds, so that men following his precepts may act in such a way that Vohu Manah may come to them.[44] It is through his medium that the devout can aspire to reach Ahura Mazda;[45] and on that account he is implored to further bodily life.[46] It is said, moreover, that he is more a possession of the hard-working man of the world, who has married and toils for his family, than of the celibate or the ascetic.[47] Vohu Manah's function of guarding the animal kingdom is not emphasized in the Avestan texts.

Vohu Manah welcomes the righteous souls to paradise. When the blessed ones cross the great bridge and come up to the gates of heaven, this premier angel rises from his golden throne and in gracious words receives the new-comers.[48]

In the final conflict between the hosts of the rival powers, he will smite his adversary Aka Manah.[49]

Asha Vahishta

The formation of the name. The Younger Avesta, in conformity with the Gathas, calls this archangel Asha and adds the epithet vahishta or best to the name. The variant stem arta is, however, found as an element of Astvatereta, the name of the renovator.[50] It is also met with in the proper names during the Achaemenian period. We have, for example, Artakhshathra, Artadata, Artapata, and Artafarnah. Its forms areta, 'proper,' and anareta or anaretha, 'improper,' are likewise found.[51] A righteous person is called ashavan which is equivalent to the ​Vedic riāvan. In the use of Avestan ashahe khā and Vedic khā rtasya, 'source of righteousness,' we have an interesting instance of the common words employed by both.[52]

His righteousness remains the basic doctrine of Zoroastrianism during the Later Avestan period. Ahura Mazda is the righteous lord of righteousness.[53] Among the many names by which Ahura Mazda is invoked in the hymn dedicated to him, the fourth is Asha Vahishta or Best Righteousness.[54] Ahura Mazda has created Asha Vahishta, or Best Righteousness,[55] who is the greatest, best, fairest, the radiant, the all-good archangel.[56] In one instance he is called by the Indo-Iranian epithet bagha, 'divinity.' He it is who smites disease, death, fiends, sorcerers, noxious creatures, and his adversary Druj, Deceit or Wickedness.[57] Zarathushtra for that reason proclaims the glory of Asha Vahishta, through whom the way to the abode of the archangels, paradise, becomes easy.[58] The souls of the dead, who are the Fravashis of the righteous, dwell in the shining realm of Asha Vahishta.[59] This celestial personification gives joy to the souls of the righteous dead.[60] It is through him that the devotee aspires to behold and reach Ahura Mazda.[61] He offers homage and adoration to him along with Ahura Mazda.[62] Emphasizing Zarathushtra's dictum in the Gathas, the Younger Avesta affirms that there is one path alone that leads to the eternal life, and that is the Path of Righteousness.[63] The Vedas likewise allude to the Path of Rta.[64] The Achaemenian kings refer to the Right Path in their rock inscriptions.[65] Buddha embodies his teachings in his noble Eightfold Path.[66] During the same period Lao-tze interprets his philosophy in the Tao or the Way in China. Shinto or the Way of the gods appears in the national cult of Japan. The prophets and seers reveal the Path or Way of life to mankind and Jesus calls himself the Way, a thousand years after Zarathushtra. The faithful invoke the holy waters of Ahura Mazda for the attainment of this path which is the most upright and which leads to the paradise of ​the righteous.[67] Atar, the genius of fire, leads to this straightest path all those who lie not unto Mithra.[68] Referring to the guilty persons who have undergone punishments for the crime of assaulting other persons, the Vendidad[69] admonishes sinners to walk in the path of righteousness in future. Darius likewise exhorts men not to leave the path which is right.[70]

Zarathushtra was the first among mortals to praise this embodiment of holiness;[71] and King Vishtaspa, by adopting the new faith, helped to open the way for righteousness in this world.[72] The faithful beseech Ahura Mazda to bless them with intelligent men who embrace righteousness.[73] Good thoughts of the mind, good words of the tongue, and good deeds of the hand make man ashavan, or righteous.[74] He obtains purity when he cleanses his own self with them.[75] The friendship of Asha in this world and the next is the most coveted boon for all time.[76] It is easy to understand why Asha is invoked to enter the house of the faithful to smite the wicked Druj.[77] The excellence of religious thoughts, words, and deeds, which is ordained by Ahura Mazda, and nourished by Vohu Manah, is furnished by the righteousness of Asha Vahishta.[78]

Righteousness is the highest riches. Man, we are told, pines for the riches of the earth and often strives to obtain the boon of wealth even by unlawful means. On the contrary, he should rather aspire to a store of righteousness, which is the real and permanent wealth When a man starts on a journey, he takes provisions and stores with him.[79] He takes care to provide himself with more goods than are his actual requirements.[80] How sad it is, then, that he should not furnish himself now, while it is time, with the spiritual stores of righteousness for the great journey which he will have one day to undertake and from which he will never return.[81] In the end cattle are dust; gold and silver are dross; even the body of man mingles with clay. Righteousness alone does not mingle with the dust, but survives the bodily death of man.[82] There comes a day or there comes a ​night, when the master leaves his cattle, when the cattle leave their master, and the soul leaves the body.[83] But righteousness, which is the greatest and the best of all riches, accompanies the soul after death.[84] Riches and fortune one cannot have for oneself, nor can one maintain form and beauty of body forever at will; but everyone can embrace righteousness and make it his own in this world.[85] The best man is the righteous man. He is not heroic who is not heroic in righteousness, he is not valiant who is not valiant in righteousness.[86] Life in departing leaves the richest empty in the midst of his abundance, if he lacks righteousness.

The world of righteousness, as against the world of wickedness. The universe is divided into two hostile camps. The righteous form a distinct world by themselves, and they are the favourite ones of Ahura Mazda. The men who have chosen to naturalize themselves as citizens of the Kingdom of Wickedness form a separate world of their own. The texts in the Later Avesta speak of the ashaono sti, 'the world of the righteous man,' as opposed to the drvato sti, 'the world of the wicked fiend.' The sorcerers and the wicked destroy the world of righteousness.[87] It is the faithful that work for the furtherance of the one, and for the destruction of the other.[88] The man that is holy rejoices in the prosperity of the former, just as he exults in the adversity of the latter.[89] He who does not gladden a righteous person who comes within his gates has no lasting or true joy. To be charitable to such a one is to attain paradise.[90] But again, he rejoices not who helps a wicked person that clamours for help. To help such an evil one is equivalent to hindering righteousness, inasmuch as he is wicked who is a source of goodness to the wicked.[91] A gift bestowed upon a righteous man is the best of all libations,[92] but not so when it is made to a wicked one. Refusing food to a demon-worshipper or a wicked one does not make one guilty.[93] The faithful pray that a righteous king may rule over them, but that a wicked one may be baffled and defeated.[94]

​Bodily purity contributes to righteousness. Next to life the second best good for man is purity.[95] This is the dictum of the Gathas, and it is most consistently developed throughout the entire subsequent literature. It is the favourite theme on which the Zoroastrian theologians are never tired of expatiating. Purity of body is the most salient feature in the life of a Zoroastrian. It is rated higher than anything else. The problem of cleanness and uncleanness, purity and impurity, has evoked an extensive literature. The tenets of the faith in this respect have been worked out into a science of health. Bodily purity is indispensable to purity of mind. Cleanliness of body is an essential requisite for saintliness. The clean in body find it easy to be pure in mind, and the pure in heart have just a step to take to be holy in spirit.

Asha Vahishta comes to be regarded as the healing spirit of bodily diseases. As the many kinds of healers restore bodily health by herbs and drugs, and remove the tumours and cancers by knife and implements, so there are healers that heal through righteousness or by the holy spell. We shall speak later on, in its proper place, of the art of healing by means of the holy spell. The Yasht which receives its name after Asha Vahishta is in fact mostly consecrated to Asha Vahishta's associate Airyaman, the guardian genius of human health. Of all the healers, the Avestan texts announce, the spiritual healer is the best one; it is he that heals the faithful through his own righteousness by means of the utterance of the holy spell.[96]

Asha Vahishta's relation to fire. We have seen in the Gathas Asha's dual association with the universal order prevailing everywhere and fire. We find these early Zoroastrian conceptions reflected in the writings of the Greek philosophers of the period. Heraclitus, who flourished at Ephesus, near the end of the sixth century b.c., postulates fire as the first principle from which everything that exists has come. It is working as reason or Logos and reveals the stable, divine law in the eternal flow of things in the universe. Heraclitus left a deep impression on Greek philosophy and his conceptions appear in later thinkers.[97]

In the Avestan liturgy Asha Vahishta is invoked together ​with Atar, the genius of fire.[98] Angra Mainyu, as the devil, exclaims that Zarathushtra burns him with Asha Vahishta as with molten metal.[99] This allegory of burning and annihilating the Evil Spirit through righteousness is taken literally in the later period of Zoroastrianism, where Asha Vahishta is identified at times with the household fire on the hearth. Such identification in the realms of matter and of spirit serves only to bring more into prominence the main tenets of Zoroaster's teachings in regard to Asha.

Khshathra Vairya

The change that the concept undergoes. The Gathic Khshathra now takes Vairya, 'desirable,' as its standing epithet, and hence both the terms combine to form the name of this archangel. This archangel of Ahura Mazda[100] gradually loses the abstract side of his nature in the Avestan texts In the Gathic prose text of the Yasna Haptanghaiti the abstract idea of the Divine Kingdom occurs but once. In this solitary passage the devout long for the everlasting Kingdom of Ahura Mazda.[101] Throughout the Younger Avestan texts this abstract idea of the spiritual kingdom recedes into the background, or rather is entirely lost sight of. True, Khshathra Vairya is still occasionally invoked by name along with the other celestial beings, but his higher function as the genius of the sovereign power in the abstract entirely falls out.

Khshathra Vairya as the genius of earthly wealth. Materially Khshathra Vairya is the genius of metal, and his activity is now limited to guarding this concrete creation of God. He is not spoken of as the genius of the celestial riches of the Divine Kingdom of Ahura Mazda. Khshathra Vairya and the molten metal are invoked side by side.[102] In fact he very soon loses even this trait of his work; he is identified with metal and just becomes metal itself.[103] Thrita, the first reputed healer ​of the bodies of mortals, received from him a surgical instrument for healing.[104]

As the genius of metal, Khshathra Vairya is the lord of earthly riches. He generously bestows his possessions on the poor. He is sometimes invoked in company of marezhdika, 'mercy,'[105] who is styled the protector of the poor. We can trace this relation of Khshathra Vairya as the merciful helper of the poor to the Ahuna Vairya formula.

Spenta Armaiti

Her position in the Avesta. As devotion personified on the abstract side, and as the genius of the earth on the concrete side, Spenta Armaiti, 'Holy Devotion,' retains her dual nature in the Younger Avesta. Through the medium of Devotion the faithful aspire to approach Ahura Mazda,[106] and in the Confession of Faith the pious follower of Zarathushtra chooses Devotion and yearns to make her his own.[107] Upon lifting up his devotional prayer the house-lord prays that she may enter his house and thus rout heresy.[108] The malice and harm of the wicked could be averted through her help.[109] She is the daughter of Ahura Mazda and as the genius of devotion is the mother of Ashi Vanghuhi, or the genius of Good Piety,[110] while Rata, the guardian spirit of generosity, is invoked with her.[111]

Armaiti as earth. From her position as the female genius of the earth,[112] Armaiti very soon becomes the earth herself. She is now more frequently spoken of as the earth than as the genius of the earth.[113] She wears the star-studded sky as her garment.[114]

Haurvatat and Ameretat

The dual archangels. These two Amesha Spentas are closely united to each other and generally occur together side by side.[115] Haurvatat has a Yasht consecrated to him, being invoked as the ​lord of seasons and years.[116] Ahura Mazda created Haurvatat for the help, joy, comfort, and pleasure of the righteous ones.[117] The man who invokes the name of Haurvatat as one of the archangels is able to smite the legion of demons.[118] The two, Haurvatat and Ameretat, together form the reward of the righteous after death,[119] while fire is invoked to grant the blessings of Haurvatat and Ameretat to its supplicants for help and joy.[120] The two archangels together will smite the demons of hunger and thirst during the final conflict between the forces of good and evil.[121]

Instances where the two archangels materially personify water and plants are not found in the Later Avestan texts. Examples, however, are not wanting, as is well known, in which they occur as meaning specifically water and plants in their healing effect on mankind.[122]

  1. ↑ Ys. 39. 3; 42. 6.
  2. ↑ Yt. 1. 25.
  3. ↑ Is. et Os. 47; Strabo, p. 732; Thomas, Strabo and the Ameshaspands in J. J. Madressa Jubilee Volume, p. 173-176.
  4. ↑ Yt. 2. 13; 13. 83; 19. 16; For seven Babylonian Igigis and seven Elamite deities, see Gray, The Foundations of the Iranian Religions, p. 17.
  5. ↑ Ys. 4. 4; 24. 9; 39. 3; Vsp. 9. 4.
  6. ↑ Yt. 13. 83; 19. 16.
  7. ↑ Yt. 13. 84; 19. 17.
  8. ↑ Ys. 23. 2.
  9. ↑ Vd. 19. 32, 36.
  10. ↑ Yt. 1. 3.
  11. ↑ Ys. 4. 4; 39. 3; Vsp. 9. 4; 11. 12.
  12. ↑ Ys. 2. 2; 4. 4; 6. 1; 24. 9; 25. 4; 35. 1; 58. 5; 70. 1; Vsp. 8. 1; 11. 12; Vd. 19. 9.
  13. ↑ Ys. 26. 3; Yt. 13. 82.
  14. ↑ Ys. 58. 5; Yt. 19. 18; Vd. 19. 9.
  15. ↑ Yt. 13. 81.
  16. ↑ G. 2. 8.
  17. ↑ Ys. 57. 23; Yt. 11. 14.
  18. ↑ Vd. 19. 13.
  19. ↑ Ys. 1. 2.
  20. ↑ Ys. 4. 2.
  21. ↑ Ys. 60. 6.
  22. ↑ Yt. 13. 84; 19. 17.
  23. ↑ Yt. 10. 89.
  24. ↑ Yt. 10. 51.
  25. ↑ Yt. 10. 15; 13. 92.
  26. ↑ Yt. 7. 3.
  27. ↑ Yt. 19. 19.
  28. ↑ Yt. 19. 96.
  29. ↑ Vd. 19. 13.
  30. ↑ Yt. 17. 18.
  31. ↑ Yt. 15. 1; Vsp. 6. 1.
  32. ↑ Ys. 58. 5.
  33. ↑ Ys. 12. 1.
  34. ↑ Ys. 52. 4.
  35. ↑ Yt. 24. 46.
  36. ↑ Yt. 10. 139; 24. 12.
  37. ↑ Yt. 1. 24.
  38. ↑ Ys. 11. 18; 14. 1, 2; Vsp. 5. 2.
  39. ↑ Ys. 4. 4; Vsp. 11. 12.
  40. ↑ Ys. 22. 25; 25. 6; Yt. 2. 1; Sr. 1. 2, 29; 2. 2, 29.
  41. ↑ Yt. 24. 41.
  42. ↑ Vd. 4. 45; 18. 6.
  43. ↑ Yt. 13. 77, 78.
  44. ↑ Yt. 1, 20.
  45. ↑ Ys. 36. 4.
  46. ↑ Ys. 68. 23.
  47. ↑ Vd. 4. 48.
  48. ↑ Vd. 19. 31.
  49. ↑ Yt. 19. 96.
  50. ↑ Yt. 13. 110, 117, 128, 129; 19. 92, 95.
  51. ↑ Ys. 12. 4; 65. 9; Vsp. 1. 2; 2. 2.
  52. ↑ Ys. 10. 4; RV. 2. 28. 5.
  53. ↑ G. 5. 5.
  54. ↑ Yt. 1. 7.
  55. ↑ Yt. 1. 25.
  56. ↑ Ys. 13. 8; 37. 4; 59. 32; 60. 13; Yt. 1. 22; 2. 7; 13. 91, 92; Sr. 1. 3; 2. 3.
  57. ↑ Yt. 3. 14-17.
  58. ↑ Yt. 3. 3.
  59. ↑ Ys. 16. 7.
  60. ↑ TdFr. 72-74.
  61. ↑ Ys. 60. 12.
  62. ↑ Ys. 41. 1.
  63. ↑ Ys. 72. 11.
  64. ↑ RV. 1. 136.
  65. ↑ Naksh-i Rustam a. 6.
  66. ↑ Mahāvagga, 1. 6. 18.
  67. ↑ Ys. 68. 13.
  68. ↑ Yt. 10. 3.
  69. ↑ Vd. 4. 43.
  70. ↑ NR. a. 6.
  71. ↑ Yt. 13. 88.
  72. ↑ Yt. 13. 99; 19. 93.
  73. ↑ Ys. 40. 3.
  74. ↑ TdFr. 57-59; see Nariman, Buddhist parallels to Humata, Hukhta, Hvarshta in Dastur Hoshang Memorial Volume, p. 311-316.
  75. ↑ Vd. 10. 19.
  76. ↑ Ys. 40. 2; 41. 6.
  77. ↑ Ys. 60. 5.
  78. ↑ Vsp. 12. 3, 4.
  79. ↑ Aog. 41.
  80. ↑ Aog. 42-44.
  81. ↑ Aog. 46-47.
  82. ↑ Aog. 84.
  83. ↑ Aog. 51.
  84. ↑ Aog. 52.
  85. ↑ TdFr. 95-98.
  86. ↑ TdFr. 103, 104.
  87. ↑ Ys. 8. 3.
  88. ↑ Ys. 52. 4.
  89. ↑ Ys. 8. 8.
  90. ↑ TdFr. 107-109.
  91. ↑ Ys. 71. 13; TdFr. 110-112.
  92. ↑ Nr. 84.
  93. ↑ Nr. 18.
  94. ↑ Ys. 8. 6.
  95. ↑ Vd. 5. 21.
  96. ↑ Yt. 3. 6; Vd. 7. 44.
  97. ↑ See also Carnoy, Zoroastrianism in ERE. 12. 866.
  98. ↑ Ys. 1. 4; 2. 4; 3. 6; 4. 9; 6. 3; 7. 6; 17. 3; 22. 6; 59. 3; Yt. 4. 9; Sr. 1. 7; 2. 7; Afr. 4. 2; G. 2. 9, 12.
  99. ↑ Yt. 17. 20.
  100. ↑ Yt. 1. 25.
  101. ↑ Ys. 41. 2.
  102. ↑ Vsp. 20. 1; Yt. 2. 7; Sr. 1. 4; 2. 4.
  103. ↑ Yt. 10. 125; Vd. 9. 10; 16. 6; 17. 6, 8.
  104. ↑ Vd. 20. 3.
  105. ↑ Yt. 2. 7; Sr. 1. 4; 2. 4.
  106. ↑ Ys. 13. 6; 39. 5.
  107. ↑ Ys. 12. 2.
  108. ↑ Ys. 60. 5.
  109. ↑ Yt. 1. 28.
  110. ↑ Yt. 17. 16; Vd. 19. 13, 16.
  111. ↑ Sr. 1. 5; 2. 5.
  112. ↑ Vd. 3. 35.
  113. ↑ Ys. 16. 10; Yt. 24. 50; Vd. 2. 10, 14, 18; 18. 51, 64.
  114. ↑ Yt. 13. 3.
  115. ↑ Ys. 1. 2; 3. 1; 4. 1; 6. 17; 7. 26; 8. 1; 58. 7; 70. 2; 71. 12; Vsp. 9. 5; Yt. 1. 25; 10. 92.
  116. ↑ Yt. 4. 0; Sr. 1. 6; 2. 6.
  117. ↑ Yt. 4. 1.
  118. ↑ Yt. 4. 2.
  119. ↑ Yt. 1. 25.
  120. ↑ Ys. 58. 7.
  121. ↑ Yt. 19. 96.
  122. ↑ Ys. 3. 1; 4. 1, 3; 7. 1, 20; 8. 1.
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