Home
Random
Log in
Settings
Donate
About Wikisource
Disclaimers
Search
Index
:
Open Skies (Kellermann).pdf
Index
Discussion
Styles
Language
Watch
Edit
Title
Open Skies: The National Radio Astronomy Observatory and Its Impact on US Radio Astronomy
Author
Kenneth I. Kellermann, Ellen N. Bouton, and Sierra S. Brandt
Year
2020
Source
pdf
Progress
To be proofread
Transclusion
Index not transcluded or unreviewed
Pages
(key to
Page Status
)
i
iii
iv
v
vi
vii
viii
ix
x
xi
xii
xiii
xiv
xv
xvi
xvii
xviii
xix
xx
xxi
xxii
xxiii
xxiv
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
332
333
334
335
336
337
338
339
340
341
342
343
344
345
346
347
348
349
350
351
352
353
354
355
356
357
358
359
360
361
362
363
364
365
366
367
368
369
370
371
372
373
374
375
376
377
378
379
380
381
382
383
384
385
386
387
388
389
390
391
392
393
394
395
396
397
398
399
400
401
402
403
404
405
406
407
408
409
410
411
412
413
414
415
416
417
418
419
420
421
422
423
424
425
426
427
428
429
430
431
432
433
434
435
436
437
438
439
440
441
442
443
444
445
446
447
448
449
450
451
452
453
454
455
456
457
458
459
460
461
462
463
464
465
466
467
468
469
470
471
472
473
474
475
476
477
478
479
480
481
482
483
484
485
486
487
488
489
490
491
492
493
494
495
496
497
498
499
500
501
502
503
504
505
506
507
508
509
510
511
512
513
514
515
516
517
518
519
520
521
522
523
524
525
526
527
528
529
530
531
532
533
534
535
536
537
538
539
540
541
542
543
544
545
546
547
548
549
550
551
552
553
554
555
556
557
558
559
560
561
562
563
564
565
566
567
568
569
570
571
572
573
574
575
576
577
578
579
580
581
582
583
584
585
586
587
588
589
590
591
592
593
594
595
596
597
598
599
600
601
602
603
604
605
606
607
608
609
610
611
612
613
614
615
616
617
618
619
620
621
622
623
624
625
626
627
628
629
630
631
632
633
634
635
636
637
638
639
640
641
642
643
644
645
Contents
1
A New Window on the Universe
1
1.1 Star Noise at the Telephone Company
1
1.2 Early Follow-Up to Jansky’s Discovery
18
1.3 Grote Reber and Cosmic Static
19
1.4 Impact of Karl Jansky and Grote Reber
25
Bibliography
31
2
The Postwar Explosion in Radio Astronomy: The US Falls Behind
35
2.1 Postwar Radio Astronomy
36
2.2 Radio Waves from the Sun
42
2.3 Radio Stars and Radio Galaxies
43
2.4 The 21 cm Hydrogen Line: The Beginning of Radio Spectroscopy
48
2.5 Early US University Radio Astronomy Programs
53
2.6 US Government and Military Radio Astronomy Programs
58
2.7 Private Initiatives
63
2.8 Why Did the US Fall Behind the UK and Australia? Or Did It?
65
Bibliography
70
3
A New Era in Radio Astronomy
77
3.1 The Business of Science
77
3.2 First Steps Toward a National Radio Astronomy Facility
86
3.3 Creating the National Observatory
108
3.4 Choosing the Site
123
3.5 Confrontation and Decision
130
Bibliography
154
4
Growing Pains
157
4.1 Finding a Director
158
4.2 Getting Started
162
4.3 The 85 Foot Tatel Radio Telescope (aka 85-1)
166
4.4 The 140 Foot Saga
170
4.5 The 300 Foot Transit Radio Telescope
196
4.6 Jumping Ship
200
4.7 Exodus from Green Bank
211
Bibliography
225
5
Is Anyone Out There?
229
5.1 Project Ozma
229
5.2 Cocconi and Morrison Paper
234
5.3 Reactions to Searching for Extraterrestrials
235
5.4 Development of the SETI Community
238
5.5 SETI After Project Ozma
242
5.6 SETI in the USSR
252
5.7 Continuing SETI Programs
254
Bibliography
260
6
The Bar Is Open
263
6.1 NRAO Reaches Maturity
263
6.2 First Scientific Studies
273
6.3 The Central Development Laboratory
280
6.4 Open Skies
284
6.5 Community Interactions
287
6.6 Growing Competition
289
6.7 Grote Reber Challenges NRAO
304
6.8 Changing Leadership
306
Bibliography
313
7
The Very Large Array
319
7.1 Background
319
7.2 Origins of the Very Large Array and the Owens Valley Array
325
7.3 The Green Bank Interferometer (GBI)
337
7.4 The NRAO-OVRO Wars
341
7.5 Choosing the VLA Site
352
7.6 Building the VLA
355
7.7 Transition to Operations
369
7.8 The Karl G. Jansky Very Large Array (JVLA)
375
Bibliography
386
8
VLBI and the Very Long Baseline Array
391
8.1 Independent-Oscillator-Tape-Recording Interferometry
392
8.2 Penetrating the Iron Curtain
398
8.3 Faster than Light
402
8.4 Advanced VLBI Systems
404
8.5 VLBI Networks
408
8.6 Planning the VLBA
412
8.7 Funding the VLBA
415
8.8 Building the VLBA
425
8.9 Orbiting VLBI (OVLBI)
437
8.10 Reflections
442
Bibliography
454
9
The Largest Feasible Steerable Telescope
461
9.1 Early Discussions
461
9.2 International Challenges
464
9.3 The Sugar Grove Fiasco
469
9.4 The Largest Feasible Steerable Telescope Project
474
9.5 Challenges from California and Cambridge
481
9.6 A National Disaster Leads to a New Radio Telescope
483
9.7 Building the Green Bank Telescope (GBT)
505
Bibliography
530
10
Exploring the Millimeter Sky
533
10.1 First Attempts
534
10.2 The NRAO 36 Foot Millimeter Wave Telescope
535
10.3 Replacing the 36 Foot Telescope
546
10.4 US Industrial and University Millimeter Wave Astronomy Programs
552
10.5 International Challenges
558
10.6 The NRAO Millimeter Array (MMA)
561
10.7 The Atacama Large Millimeter/Submillimeter Array (ALMA)
568
Bibliography
579
11
NRAO and Radio Astronomy in the Twenty-First Century
583
11.1 New Discoveries and New Problems
583
11.2 Radio Astronomy and Optical Astronomy
586
11.3 NRAO and the US Radio Astronomy Community
588
11.4 Conflict and Collaboration
589
11.5 The National Radio Quiet Zone and Radio Frequency Spectrum Management
591
11.6 The Transition to “Big Science”
593
11.7 The Square Kilometre Array (SKA)
597
11.8 The Next Generation VLA (ngVLA)
606
11.9 Divestment
607
11.10 Lessons Learned
608
Bibliography
612
Appendix A: Abbreviations and Acronyms
615
Appendix B: NRAO Timeline
625
Index
631