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Index:Sm all cc.pdf

Title Scientific Methods
Author Richard D. Jarrard
Source pdf
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CONTENTS
1. Introduction 1
Overview 1
Thumbnail History of Scientific Methods 3
Myth of a Scientific Method 12
Scientific Methods 12
SCIENTIFIC TOOLBOX
2. Variables 15
Statistics 15
Errors 16
Precision > Accuracy > Reliability 17
Random and Systematic Errors 18
Representative Sampling 18
Replication and Confirmation 20
Probability 20
Sampling Distribution for One Variable 21
Histograms 22
Normal Distribution 23
Mean & Standard Deviation 23
Normal Distribution Function 24
Weighted Mean 26
95% Confidence Limits on Mean 26
How Many Measurements are Needed? 27
Propagation of Errors 28
Non-Normal Distributions 29
Normality Tests 30
Rejecting Anomalous Data 32
Median, Range, & 95% Confidence Limits 33
Examples 37
3. Induction and Pattern Recognition 42
Types of Explanation 43
Coincidence 45
Correlation 46
Examples 47
Crossplots 50
Plotting Hints 52
Extrapolation and Interpolation 53
Correlation Statistics 55
Nonlinear Relationships 58
Correlation Conclusions 60
Perspectives on Causality 60
Mill's Canons: Five Inductive Methods 64
Method of Agreement 65
Method of Difference 66
Joint Method of Agreement & Difference 67
Method of Concomitant Variations 67
Method of Residues 67
Correlation or Causality? 68
4. Deduction and Logic 71
Logic 72
Deduction vs. Induction 73
Deductive Logic 74
Classification Statements 75
Deductive Aids: Venn Diagrams and Substitution 76
Logically Equivalent Statements 78
Relationships among Statements 80
Syllogisms 82
Categorical Syllogisms 83
Hypothetical Syllogisms 85
Pitfalls: Fallacious Arguments 86
Fallacies Resulting from Problems in a Premise 88
Fallacies Employing Extraneous Other Evidence 90
Faulty Link between Premises & Conclusion 92
Case-dependent Relationship between Parts & Whole 94
5. Experimental Techniques 97
Observational versus Experimental Science 98
Seizing an Opportunity 101
Experimental Equipment 101
Prototypes and Pilot Studies 102
Troubleshooting and Search Procedures 104
Problem: Find a Needle in a Haystack 109
Problem: Search for the Top Quark 110
Tips on Experimental Design and Execution 110
Pitfalls of Experimental Design 116
Control of Variables 117
Problem: the Noisy Widgetometer 120
Computation and Information Handling 121
LIVING SCIENCE
6. The Myth of Objectivity 125
Perception: Case Studies 125
Perception, Memory, and Schemata 131
Postmodernism 135
Pitfalls of Subjectivity 137
Experimental Design 137
Experiment Execution 138
Data Interpretation 140
Publication 140
Pitfall Examples 141
Group Objectivity 143
7. Evidence Evaluation and Scientific Progress 146
Judgment Values 147
Evaluation Aids 151
Confirmation and Refutation of Hypotheses 156
Power of Evidence 157
Hypothesis Modification 159
Paradigm and Scientific Revolution 161
Pitfalls of Evidence Evaluation 164
Hidden Influence of Prior Theory on Evidence Evaluation 164
Incremental Hypotheses and Discoveries 165
'Fight or Flight' Reaction to New Ideas 165
Confusing the Package and Product 166
Pitfall Examples 166
8. Insight 168
Role of Insight in Science 169
Characteristics of Insight 170
Conditions Favoring Insight 171
Obstacles to Insight 173
The Royal Way 175
How Does Insight Work? 176
Alternative Paths to Insight 178
Unexpected Results 178
Transfer from other Disciplines 178
Breakthroughs by Amateurs: the Outsider Perspective 179
From Puzzle Solving… 180
…To Mystical Experience 181
9. The Scientist's World 183
Scientist and Lay Person 183
Science and Society 184
Science and the Arts 187
Science and Pseudoscience 187
Applied and Basic Research 189
Conflict: Applied vs. Basic Research 189
Changing Goals for Applied and Basic Research 191
Resolution: Bridging the Gap 192
Big Science versus Little Science 193
Ego and the Scientific Pecking Order 194
10. The Scientist 197
Scientists' Characteristics 197
Essential Characteristics 197
Common Characteristics 199
Cooperation or Competition? 202
Science Ethics 205
Publication 207
A Scientist's Life: Changing Motivations 210
Process and Product 211
References 214
Name Index 225
Subject Index 228
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