OUXHAYEN — CYCLING that of an Ammonite, particularly to such an early type as the Trachyceras, or late type as the Hoplites. It has usually been considered, but not without various protests, that this resemblance is superficial only, since there are no septa, and the shell has been supposed to be the product of the arms which partially embrace it. That such is not the case has been shown by Steinmann, and can be easily verified on the shell itself. The most solid part is a transverse bar, projecting from either side of the apex and spreading out in a double fold over its surface. It is actually inaccessible to the arms, and cannot be produced by them. This bar passes insensibly into the remainder of the shell, which consequently has the same origin. This is composed of two principal layers. The inner layer is a comparatively thin basement membrane, irregularly folded and thickened by calcareous matter in irregular lines running parallel to the margin of the shell, and in no way interrupted in passing from one side to the other of _ the median line. The outer layer, which has a tendency to split into two parts, consists of very fine vertical rods, arranged as in a pile carpet, which readily coalesce and are calcified into the solid shell. It is these two layers that are produced by the mantle. Besides these there is a thin amorphous periostracum, often coloured with a brownish tint and rough on the surface from the sporadic deposit of calcareous particles. This is found only on the outside of the shell where it is covered by the arms, that is, it is wanting near the margin and for some distance on either side of the median line. The relation of this shell to the animal is similar to that of the Nautilus, and thus presumably of the Ammonite also, and different from that of the Sepia, inasmuch as the outer part of it lies on the siphonal or ventral side of the mouth; while in the Sepia it lies on the antisiphonal or dorsal side. Such is the evidence at present available for the view that Octopods are descended from Ammonites which have dispensed with their septa, or with their entire shell. On the other hand is the fact that no ink-bag has ever been found in association with an Ammonite. Authorities.—Hoyle. “Catalogue of Recent Cephalopoda, R. Rhys. Soc. Edinb. ix., 1886, and supplement, xii., 1897.— Lacaze-Duthiers. “Observation d’un Argonaute de la Mediterranee,” Arch. Zool. Exp&r. x., 1892.—Huxley and Pelseneer. “ Report on the Specimen of the Genus Spirula collected by H.M.S. ‘Challenger,’” Rep. Chall. Exp. Zool. Ixxxiii., 1892.—Branco. “Beitriige zur Entwicklungs-geschichte der Fossilen Cephalopoden.” Palceontogra/phica, xxvi.-xxvii., 1879-80.—Woodward, H. “On a Fossil Octopus from the Cretaceous of the Lebanon,” Quart. J. Gcol. Soc. lib, 1896.—Steinmann. “ Ueber die Organisation der Ammoniten,” Ber. Naturf. Ges. Freiberg, 1888. . (j. F. Bl.) Cuxhaven, a seaport town of Germany, belonging to the state of Hamburg, and situated at the extremity of the west side of the mouth of the Elbe, 71 miles by rail north-west from Hamburg. A new harbour was made in 1891-96, having an area of 71,800 square yards and a depth of 26J feet, with a fore port 1000 feet long by 800 feet wide; and it is now the place of departure and arrival of the mail steamers of the Hamburg-American Steamship Company, who in 1901 transferred here a part of their permanent staff. The port is free, i.e., outside the Customs Union (Zollverein), and in 1899 was entered by 331 vessels of 73,090 tons ; the imports being principally coals, bricks, and timber, and the exports fish. There is a fishing fleet, for which a new harbour was opened in 1892. Population (1900), 6898. CllZCO, the largest department of Peru, with an area of 156,270 square miles and a population of 438,646. It contains twelve provinces — Convencioh, Urubamba, Talca, Puacartamba, Anta, Cuzco, Quispicanchi, Paruro, Acomayo, Chumbivilicas, Canas, and Canchis. The capital, Cuzco, has a population of 30,000. Cyclades. 1
See Greece {Ionian Islands).
Cycling .—The history of the pastime, the sport, and the trade of cycling really begins with the year 1885. The method of self-propulsion upon two, three, or four wheels —bicycles, tricycles, or multicycles—has been practised,
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with more or less perseverance, for at least a hundred years. But before 1885 its votaries were either athletes, or persons carried away by a temporary craze; either venturesome pioneers, balancing and propelling themselves, with varying degrees of speed and uncertainty, upon “ boneshakers ” and “ ordinaries,” tall bicycles, or the timid, sometimes the comfort-loving, who rode tricycles, velocipedes, or multicycles. Had it not been for the practical and commercial introduction of the safety bicycle, brought out by J. K. Starley, of Starley and Sutton, in 1885, cycling would never have gained its popularity or become
Fig. 1.—Gentleman’s Hobby Horse, 1816-30. a universally recognized method of locomotion. The invention of the safety bicycle is claimed by numberless inventors. From 1818, the year of the craze for the Draisnene of Baron Drais de Saverbrun of Mannheim, who propelled his bicycle by half-sitting, half-standing upon a bar fitted with a saddle, connecting two equal-sized wheels, with a handle in front for steering and also for rest, and by pushing with his toes which just touched the ground, until 1840 and 1846, when Kirkpatrick Macmillan, a blacksmith of Dumfriesshire, and Gavin Dalziel, a cooper of Lanarkshire, fitted cranks and pedals to these Draisnene or similar vehicles, there is no authentic historical record. It has also been asserted that similar machines were used in Paris in 1816, one by M. Niepice in the Luxembourg Gardens. There was also a machine shown in the
historical collection in Class 30 at the Paris Exhibition of 1900, which was stated to have been made in 1/99, but there is no authentic proof of the correctness of any date before 1818. Macmillan’s and Dalziel’s machines had pedals, which moved levers backwards and forwards, connected with the rear axle, and thus drove them. Credit, therefore, for the invention of balancing and rear driving seems to belong to Macmillan; for direct steeling to Baron Drais. By 1855 cranks and pedals had been affixed to the front wheel, which was driven, and in 1866 came Michaux with his velocipede, a heavy lumbering
