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from the poor law ; (2) that hitherto it has enabled the able-bodied man to discharge his responsibilities when the poor law has declined to discharge them any longer ; (3) that it has been progressively expansive ; (4) that the more we study it, the more equi- table do its inevitable and automatic processes appear ; and (5) that it contains, some- times only in an incipient and imperfect form, elements of growth which, under the fostering and corrective care of public recognition and public criticism, will prove able to supply the remedies for much that we see of evil in our present organization. T. MACKAY, " How Far is Pauperism a Necessary Element in a Civilized Com- munity ?" in Economic Review, October, 1900. E. M.
The Population of France in 1800 and in 1900. At the annual reunion of the Society of Social Economics, on June 26, 1900, M. Cilleuls presented a com- munication upon the vital statistics of the French nation during the last century. He showed that from 1801 to 1861 the population of France increased a little more than 9,000,000, at the mean rate of 151,667 a year. Of this number eight-ninths represents the excess of births over deaths; the remaining one-ninth was due to immigration. From 1872 to 1896 the population increased 2,166,090, at the rate of 144,400 per annum ; twenty twenty-thirds of this number representing the excess of births, three twenty-thirds the increment from immigration. That is to say, in the latter period the augmentation due to excess of births fell off 6.85 per cent., while that due to immigra- tion increased 11.76 per cent.
The quality of the population is examined by comparing the figures which repre- sent for the period (i) the proportion of male and female children born, (2) the proportion of males surviving to twenty years, (3) the average height, (4) the number of men rejected and retired from military service because of infirmity, (5) the relation of births and deaths. Examining the first point, M. Cilleuls finds that the ratio of male to female babies has fallen from 108 boys for 100 girls (1778) to 101.9 boys for 100 girls in 1891-5; and the proportion of males seems still falling. The height of the French people has also been steadily decreasing. In 1818-28 the average was r m 657 mm ; in 1878-91 it was i m 648 mm . The standard for military service has been lowered several times. The number of men rejected as under i m 54 cm (the present standard) tends to decrease, however ; and, on the other hand, those who come up to the five- foot mark are also becoming fewer, so that a real mean seems to be establishing itself. Again, the proportion of men incapacitated for service in the army ascended from 6.60 per cent, in 1865 to 23.70 per cent, in 1890. The number of deaths for every 100 births was less than 85 for the period between 1800 and 1851; from 1856 to 1 88 1 it oscillated between 86 per cent, and 89 per cent.; from 1886 to 1896 it con- , tinued to mount, and varied between 90 per cent, and 100 per cent. The number of children to a family has fallen from an average of 3.88 in the first quarter of the cen- tury to 2.8l in the last quarter. In Paris the decrease in fecundity is most noticeable. Whereas the capital used to surpass by one-sixth the country at large in this respect, nowadays there are not two children, on an average, to each family in the city.
After the communication of M. Cilleuls, President Brandts, in opening the dis- cussion, said that, whereas the population of Belgium as a whole was increasing, in certain of the provinces bordering on France a diminution in the rate of increase had been noticed.
M. Juglar said that, in examining the matter of population, the proportion between different orders of phenomena for an arbitrary period should not be the basis ; but rather the absolute figures for the same phenomena during a considerable interval should be compared as showing the actual tendency. He then proceeded to compare the number of marriages in different countries for the years 1869 and 1898. He found the increase in England 79.000 ; in Germany, 36,000; in Italy, 14,000; in Austria, 9,000 less; and in France, 1 6,000 less. The number of births is even more striking. In France there are 108,000 births less every year; whereas in England the increase is at the rate of 338,000 per year ; in Germany, 156,000 ; in Italy, 1 1 8,000; and in Austria, 127,000. Paris, however, compares fairly well with London in the number of births and marriages. It is, therefore, the -wretched economic condition of the provinces that is responsible for the lack of growth in population.
M. Michel said he thought the extensive consumption of alcohol had something to do with the deterioration of the nation. M. de Charency confirmed this opinion
