VIRTUES
475
VISCHER
Hence the perfection of the moral virtues consists in
rendering the movements of the appetitive powers
conformable to their proper rule, which is reason,
neither going beyond nor falling short of it. Thus
fortitude, which makes one brave to meet dangers,
avoids on the one hand reckless daring and on the
other undue timidity. This golden mean, which con-
sists in conformity with right reason, sometimes coin-
cides with the mean of the objective thing {medium
rei), as in the case of the virtue of justice, which ren-
ders to every man his due, no more and no less. The
golden mean, however, is sometimes taken in refer-
ence to ourselves, as in the case of the other moral
virtues, viz. fortitude and temperance. For these
virtues are concerned with the inner passions, in
which the standard of right cannot be fixed invariably,
as different individuals vary with regard to the pas-
sions. Thus what would be moderation in one would
be excess in another. Here also it is to be observed
that the mean and extremes in actions and passions
must be determined according to circumstances,
ivhich may vary. Hence with regard to a certain
I'irtue, what may be an extreme according to one cir-
- umstance may be a mean according to another.
Thus perpetual chastity, which renounces aU sexual pleasures, and voluntary poverty, which renounces all temporal possessions, are true virtues, when exercised "or the motive of more surely securing life everlast- ing. With regard to the intellectual virtues, their golden mean is truth or conformity to reality, whilst ?xcess consists in false affirmation, and defect in false legation. Theological virtues do not absolutely {per !f) consist in a mean, as their object is something in- inite. Thus we can never love God excessively. Accidentally (per accidens), however, what is extreme )r mean in theological virtues may be considered rela-
- ively to ourselves. Thus although we can never love
aod as much as He deserves, still we can love Him iccording to our powers.
B. Conneximi of Virtues. — Another property of vir- ues is their connexion with one another. This mutual connexion exists between the moral virtues in their lerfoct state. "The virtues", says St. Gregory, "if icparated, cannot be perfect in the nature of virtue; or that is no true prudence which is not just and tem- perate and brave". The reason of this connexion is hat no moral virtue can be had without prudence; jecause it is the function of moral virtue, being an elective habit, to make a right choice, which rectitude )f choice mu.st be directed by prudence. On the other land prudence cannot exist without the moral virtues; jecause prudence, being a right method of conduct, las as principles whence it proceeds the ends of con- luct, to which ends one becomes duly affected through he moral virtues. Imperfect moral virtues, how- >ver, that is to say, those inclinations to virtue result- ng from natural temperament, are not necessarily ■onnrctefl with one another. Thus we see a man rom natural temperament prompt to acts of liber- dity and not prompt to acts of chastity. Nor are the latural or acquired moral virtues necessarily con- lected with charity, though they may be so occa- lionally. But the supernatural moral virtues are in- used simultaneously with charity. P^jr charity is the )rincij)lc of all good works referrablc to man's super- latural destiny. Hence it is nece.s,sary that there be nfu.sed at the same time with charity all the moral •irtues by which one performs the different kinds of
- ood works. Thus the infused moral virtues are not
miy connected on account of prudence, but also on iccount of charity. Hence he who lo.^Jes charity by nortal sin loses all the infused but not the acquired norul virtues.
From the doctrine of nature and properties of vir- ues it is abundantly clear how important a role they )lay in man's true and real perfeclinn. In the !Conomy of Divine Providence all creatures by the
exercise of their proper activity must tend to that end
destined for them by the wisdom of an infinite int elli-
gence. But as Divine Wisdom governs creatures con-
formably to their nature, man must tend to his des-
tined end, not by blind instinct, but by the exerci.se of
reason and free will. But as these faculties, as well as
the faculties subject to them, may be exercised for
good or evil, the i>roper function of the virtues is to
dispose these various psychical activities to acts con-
ducive to man's true ultimate end, just as the part
which vice plays in man's rational Ufe is to make him
swerve from his final destiny. If, then, the excellence
of a thing is to be measured by the end for which it is
destined, without doubt among man's highest perfec-
tions must be enumerated those principles of action
which play so important a part in his rational, spirit-
ual, supernatural hfe, and which in the truest sense of
the word are justly called virtues.
Aristotle, Ethics: Peter Lombard. Snil., Ill, tiist. x»v- xxxvi; Saint Thomas, Summa Tlicol. I-II., Q. Iv-lxsxi, tr. TXlcKKBY , Aquinas Ethicus: .Suahez, De virtuUhua: Joannes A. S. Thoma, Cursus tkeologicus. Comment, in /-77; Salmanticenses, Tractatus XII de virtutibus; Barre, Tractatus de virtutibus; Lequedx, Man. Comp. doct. mor de ririut; Billot, De viTtiU. infu- st.s; Pesch, De virtutibua Iheologicis et moratibus (Freiburg, 1900); Janvier, Conf. de Notre Dame: La rertu (Paris, 1906) ; Rickabt, Moral phiJ. (London, 1010); Chomn, Science of Ethics: Ulla- thorne. Groundwork of the Christian Virtues (London, 1888); MiNO, Data of Modern Ethics Examined.
AUGOSTINE WaLDRON.
Virtues, Cardinal. See Cardinal Virtues.
Virtues, Theological. See Faith; Hope; Love; Virtue.
Vischer, Peter, sculptor and metal founder, b. at Nuremberg about 1460; d. in 1.529. His father Hermann, wlio had immigrated to Nurem- berg, made a baptismal font at Wittenberg, and memorial brasses at Bamberg, Meissen, and Posen, which show evi- dences under the Gothic forms of the greater natu- ralness of a new era. His son car- ried this freedom of form further, St ill without es- sentially changing the Gothic style. However, later, he adopted more and more the ideas of the Renaissance in details. Peter's three sons, Her- mann, Peter, and Hans, who worked with him, carried out more fully the ideas of the new I)criod. This circumstance has raised the much disputed question of the share of these sons in the formal execution of the works, especially of those produced from IMh. The father often made castings as a bronze-founder from the designs of others, consequently it is often doubted whether what he did in various productions was original work. Nevertheless, the ideal figure of Peter Vischer maintains its jiosition by the side of his great contemporaries Stoss and Krafft. The sej)uichral monuments which he made, or which were produced by his workshop, range from simple, engr.aved memorial bra-sses or bronze plates cast in relief to richly orn.amented sepulchral monuments. Among his earlier works, those made about I 190, are the three memorial tablets of the bishojis of Bamberg. They were followed by the sepulchral tablets for the
