WALDENSES
529
WALDENSES
The bishop, called "major" or "majoralis", preached
and administered the sacraments of penance, Eucha-
rist, and order. The celebration of the Eucharist,
frequent perhaps in the early period, soon took place
only on Holy Thursda}'. The priest preached and
enjoyed limited faculties for the hearing of confessions.
The deacon, named "junior" or "minor", acted as
a.«sistant to the higher orders and by the collection
of alms reheved them of all material care. The
bishop was elected by a joint meeting of priests and
deacons. In his consecration, as well as in the ordi-
nation of the other members of the clergy, the laying-
on of liands was the principal element; but the reci-
tation of the Our Father, so important in the Wal-
densian hturgy, was also a prominent feature. The
power of jurisdiction seems to have been exercised
exclusively by one bishop, known as "rector", who
was the highest executive officer. Supreme legislative
power was vested in the general convention or general
chapter, which met once or twice a year, and was
originally composed of the perfect but at a later date
only of the senior members among them. It con-
sidered the general situation of the sect, examined
the religious condition of the individual districts, ad-
mitted to the episcopate, priesthood, or diaconate,
and pronounced upon the admission of new members
and the expulsion of unworthy ones.
The Lombard communities were in several respects more radical than the French. Holding that the validity of the sacraments depends on the worthiness of the minister and viewing the Catholic Church as the commimity of Satan, they rejected its entire or- ganization in so far as it was not based on the Scrip- tures. In regard to the reception of the sacraments, however, their practice w;is less radical than their theory. Although they looked upon the Catholic priests as unworthy ministers, they not infrequently received communion at their hands and justified this course on the ground that God nullifies the defect of the minister and directly grants His grace to the wor- thy recipient. /I'he present Waldcnsian Church may be regarded as a Protestant sect of the Calvinistic type. It recognizes as its doctrinal standard the con- fession of faith published in 1655 and based on the Reformed confession of 1559. It admits only two sacraments, baptism and the Lord's Supper^ Su- preme authority in the body is exercised by an annual synod, and the affairs of the individual congregations are administered by a consistory under the presidency of the pastor.
History. — The Wnlilcnxes in France and Spain. — The preaching of Waldes and his disciples obtained immediate success not only in France, but also in Italy and Spain. The Italian adherents at a very early date constituted themselves independently. In France the movement gained ground particularly in the south, whence it spread to Northern Spain. The Church sought to avert by persuasion the danger of numerous defections. As early as 1191 a religious conference wa-s held between Catholics and Waldenses at a place which has not been recorded ; it was followed by a second held at Pamiers in 1207. The latter meeting brought about the return to the Church of Duran of Huesca and several other Waldenses. With the authorization of Innocent III they organ- ized themselves into the special reUgious order of the Poor Catholics for the conversion of the Waldenses. This purpose was only attained in a very small degree; but force soon checked the heretical movement. In 1192 Bishop Otto of Toul ordered .all Waldenses to be put in chains and be delivered up to the episcopal tribunal. Two years later King W- phonso II of Aragon bani.shcd them from his domin- ions and forbade any one to furnisli them with shelter or food. These provisions were renewed by Pedro II at the Council of Oerona (1197), and death by burn- ing was decreed against the heretics. XV.— 34
The French authorities seem to have proceeded
with less severity for a time. The Albigensian
wars, however, also reacted on the policy towards
the Waldenses, and in 1214 seven of these suffered
the death penalty at Maurillac. But it was only
toward the middle of the thirteenth century that the
heresy lost ground in Provence and Languedoc. It
did not disappear in these provinces until it was
merged in the Protestant Reformation movement,
while Spain and Lorraine were freed from it in the
course of the thirteenth century. The most con-
spicuous centre of Waldensian activity in France
during the later Middle Ages was Dauphin(5 and
the western slope of the Cottian Alps. The sect
seems to have been introduced into this territory
from Lombardy. From Dauphine and the valleys of
the Alps it carried on missionary work in all Southern
France to the Atlantic seaboard. In 1403 a deter-
mined effort was made to win back the Waldenses
of the valleys of Louise, Argentiere, and Freissinicres;
but the apostolic labours of even a St. Vincent Ferrer
were powerless. The Inquisition was equally unsuc-
cessful, as were also the stern measures of the local
civil authorities. The policy of repression was tem-
porarily abandoned under King Louis XI, who,
beUeving them to be orthodox, extended to the Wal-
denses of the above-mentioned vaUeys his royal pro-
tection in an ordinance of 1478.
This period of peace was followed in 1488 by a crusade summoned by Innocent VIII against the Wal- denses. The war did not succeed in stamping them out. But, soon after, the Reformation profoundly modified the sect's history and doctrinal develop- ment. A deputation composed of G. Morel and P. Masson was sent in 1530 to Switzerland for informa- tion concerning the new religious ideas. On their return journey Masson was arrested at Dijon and executed; Morel alone safely accomplished his mission. The report of this journey led to the assembling of a general convention to which Farel and other Swiss Reformers were invited. The meet- ing was held at Chanforans in tlie valley of Angrogne and the Reformed teaching substantially adopted (1532). A minority opposed this course and vainly sought to stem the tide of radicalism by an appeal for assistance to the Bohemian Brethren. A new con- vention held in the valley of St. Martin in 1533 con- firmed the decisions of Chanforans. The open adoi)tion of Protestantism soon led to persecution in which Waldensianism disappeared from Provence (1545). The history of the communities in other dis- tricts became henceforth identified with that of Protestantism in France.
The Waldc7ises in Italy and other Countries. — Italy became a more permanent home of Waldensianism and more active in missionary work than France. During the very first years of Waldes's preaching, converts to his views are mentioned in Lombardy. They increased rapidly in number and were joined by some members of the Order of the Humiliati. But dissensions soon arose between the Waklensians in France and in Lombardy. The latter organized guilds of craftsmen, desired leaders of their own, and refused admission among the perfect to married persons without the consent of their consort. On Waldes's refusal to sanction these points his followers in Italy .seceded during the first decade of the thir- teenth century. After his death a vain attempt at reunion was made at Bergamo in 1218. The Italian brancli after some time not only prospered in the valleys of western Piedmont, but also established important colonies in Calabria and Apulia. In the fifteenth century communities hardly less impor- tant are mentioned in the Papal States and other parts of Central Italy.
The appearance of the \A'aIdcnse8 in the Diocese of Strasburg is recorded in 1211 and the years 1231-
