CARAVAGGIO
330
CARBONARI
collar of gold from the emperor. Soon after he be-
came Bishop of Konigratz, then Archbishop of
Otranto, and at Ms death was Bishop of Vigevano.
His books are even more numerous than his titles and his varied achievements; for, according to Pa- quot, he published no less than 262 works on gram- mar, poetry, oratory, mathematics, astronomy, phys- ics, politics, canon law, logic, metaphysics, theology and asceticism. But he produced little that is of permanent value. He loved to defend novel theories, and in "Theologia moralis ad prima atque clarissima principia reducta" (Louvain, 1643) tried to solve theological problems by mathematical rules. Some of Ins moral opinions gained for him from St. Al- phonsus Liguori the title of "Prince of the Laxists".
Muratori, Reflexiones sobre el buen gusto en las Ciencias, tr. by Sempere (Madrid, 1782), 101; Niceron. Mimoires pour servir a Vhisloire des hommts illustrcs tie la rtpublique des lettres (Paris. 172S-45), XXIX, 259; Paqdot. Memoir es pour servir a I'histoire litteraire des dix-sept provinces des Paus-Bas (Lou- vain, 1765-70), II, 175: Antonio, Bibh .•»,., ,, lli.pana nova (Madrid, 17831, I, 666; Werner, Gad dUi dtr katholischen Theologie (Munich. 1889*. 56; Keusch, l>> i h.d,j dtr rerbntenen Bucher (Bonn, 1885), II, 501, 502; Hcrter. Xomenclator (Inns- bruck, 1S76I. II. pt. I. 529; Bricker, Historia crdicn philoso- phim (Leipzig, 1743), IV, 132.
Leo F. O'Neil.
Caravaggio, Michel Angiolo da. See Morigi.
Caravaggio, Polidoro da. See Caldara.
Carayon, Auguste, French author and bibliog- rapher, b. in Saumur, France, 31 March, 1813; d. at Poitiers, 15 May, 1874. He joined the Society of Jesus in 1848, and was at various times librarian and procurator. He edited many historical works between 1864 and 1874, and is considered a leading autho- rity upon the history of his order, especially in New France. His principal works are: "Biblio- graphic historique de la Compagnie de Jesus (Paris, 1864); "Documents inedits concernant la Compagnie de Jesus" (Poitiers, 1863-1874, 18 vols.); "Premiere mission des Jesuites au Canada" (Paris, 1864); "Ban- nissement des Jesuites de la Louisiane" (1865); "Etablissement de la Compagnie de Jesus a Brest par Louis XIV" (Paris, 1865); "Les prisons du Mar- quis de Pombal" (1865); "Notes hist oriques sur les parlements et les Jesuites au XVIII e siecle" (Paris, 1867). Carayon is also the author of several devo- tional treatises published between 1854 and 1863.
SoMUERVOGEL, Bibl . de la c. de J., II, 714-718; Thwaites, Jesuit Relations (Cleveland, 1896-1901), I, 311.
Edward P. Spillane.
Carbery, James Joseph, third Bishop of Hamilton, Ontario, b. in the County YVestmeath, Ireland, 1 May, 1823; d.at Cork, 17 December, 1S87. His early educa- tion was received at the Seminary of Navan. He en- tered at an early age the Order of St. Dominic, and made his course of philosophy and theology at Viterbo and Home. Returning to Ireland in 1849, he soon became known for his learning, eloquence, and zeal- ous labours. He filled many important positions in his order, and became an assistant to the master general. In 1883 he was appointed Bishop of Hamil- ton, and was consecrated in Rome, 11 November of the same year. He died while seeking to restore his broken health by a visit to his native country. V. F. O'Daniei,.
Carbonari (Charcoal-burners), the name of a secret political society, which played an important part, childly in 1' ranee and Italy, during the first dec- ades of the nineteenth century. The improbable claim was made thai the society originated sonic centuries earlier, and the French king Francis I ap- pears in the secret documents of the Carbonari as one of their protectors. In reality the association origi- nated as the eighteenth century passed into the nine-
teenth; it was one of the results of the political
movement which accompanied the great French Rev-
olution and of the political principles that were pro-
claimed at that time. It is not certain whether the
Carbonari, as a political society, had its first organi-
zation in France or Italy. At any rate the power of
the association was first shown at the beginning of the
nineteenth century in the Kingdom of Naples and the
States of the Church. Just as the name "Carbonari"
was adopted from the charcoal-burners, so also in
their secret intercourse they made use of many ex-
pressions taken from the occupation of charcoal-
burning. The place where the members assembled
was called baracca (hut), its interior rendita (place of
selling coal), and its surroundings foresta (forest).
The members called one another buon cug'ino (good
cousin); those not belonging to the society were
pagani (heathens). The Carbonari were divided into
two classes: apprentices and masters. No appren-
tice could rise to the grade of a master before the end
of six months. The members made themselves
known to one another by secret signs in shaking
hands. These signs for masters and apprentices were
unlike. One of the underlying principles of the soci-
ety, it is true, was that the "good brotherhood"
rested on religion and virtue; but by this was under-
stood a purely natural conception of religion, and the
mention of religion was absolutely forbidden. In
reality the association was opposed to the Church.
Nevertheless, it venerated St. Theobald as its patron
saint. The members belonging to each separate
district formed a vendita, called thus from the place
of assembly. At the head was the alta vendita, to
which deputies were chosen from the other verir
diie. A small hatchet, was the distinguishing sym-
bol of a master, the apprentices were indicated by a
little fagot worn in the button-hole. Initiation into
the society was accompanied by special ceremonies
which, in the reception into the grade of master, imi-
tated the Passion of Christ in a manner actually blas-
phemous. The members were bound by a frightful
oath to observe absolute silence concerning whatever
occurred in the vendita. The similarity between the
secret society of the Carbonari and Freemasonry is
evident. Freemasons could enter the Carbonari as
masters at once. The openly-avowed aim of the Car-
bonari was political: they sought to bring about a
constitutional monarchy or a republic, and to defend
the rights of the people against all forms of absolu-
tism. They did not hesitate to compass their ends by
assassination and armed revolt. As early as the first
years of the nineteenth century the society was wide-
spread in Neapolitan territory, especially in the
Abruzzi and Calabria. Not only men of low birth,
but also government officials of high rank, officers,
and even members of the clergy belonged to it.
In 1814 the Carbonari resolved to obtain a consti- tution for the Kingdom of Naples by force. The lawful ruler, Ferdinand I. was opposed to them, bul the king placed on the throne by Napoleon, Murat. connected himself with them in March, 1815. as he believed the time was come to create a united and independent Italy. However, Murat was captured and shot in October of the same year and Ferdinand once more mounted the throne. In the following years the Carbonari grew in strength and power in all the districts of the Kingdom of Naples and made preparations for a new revolutionary movement. From Naples the Carbonari spread into the neigh- bouring territories of the States of the Church, and here also the Society sought to overthrow the abso- lute dominion of the papacy. The Carbonari even
promulgated a forged papal Brief which contained an apparent confirmation ol the association. On IS August. Ml, Cardinals Consalvi and Pacca issued
'diet against secret societies, especially against
Freemasonry and the Carbonari, in which all were
