CONFUCIANISM
225
CONFUCIANISM
Book XXVIII of the "Li-ki", and is one of its most
valuable treatises. It consists of a collection of say-
ings of Confucius characterizing the man of perfect
virtue. The other treatise, forming Book XXXIX
of the "Li-ki", is the so-called "Ta-hio" (Great
Learning). It piu-ports to be descriptions of the
virtuous ruler by the disciple Tsang-tze, based on
the teachings of the master. The fifth " King" is the
short historical treatise known as the "Ch'un-ts'ew"
(Spring and Autumn), said to have been written by
the hand of ('onfucius himself. It consists of a con-
nected series of bare annals of the state of Lu for the
years 722-484 B. c. To these five "Kings" belongs
a sixth, the so-called "Hiao-king" (Book of Filial
Piety). The Chinese attribute its composition to
Confucius, but in the opinion of critical scholars, it
is the product of the school of his disciple, Tsang-
tze.
Mention has just been made of the two treatises, the "Doctrine of the Mean" and the "Great Learn- ing", embodied in the "Li-ki". In the eleventh century of our era, these two works were united with other Confucian texts, constituting what is known as the "Sze-shuh" (.Four Books). First of these is the "Lun-yu" (Analects). It is a work in twenty short chapters, showing what manner of man Confucius was in his daily life, and recording many of his strik- ing sayings on moral and historical topics. It seems to embody the authentic testimony of his disciples written by one of the next generation.
The second place in the "Shuh" is given to the "Book of Mencius". Mencius (Meng-tze), was not an immediate disciple of the master. He lived a cen- tury later. He acquired great fame as an exponent of Confucian teaching. His sayings, chiefly on moral topics, were treasured up by disciples, and published in his name. Third and fourth in order of the " Shuh " come the "Great Learning" and the "Doctrine of the Mean".
For our earliest knowledge of the contents of these Confucian texts, we are indebted to the painstaking re.searches of the Jesuit missionaries in China during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, who, with an heroic zeal for the spread of Christ's kingdom united a diligence and proficiency in the study of (liiiH'se customs, literature, and history that have laid succeeding scholars under lasting obligation. Aim nig these we may mention Fathers Premare, 1m nis, Lacharme, Gaubil, Noel, Ignacio da Costa, by wIm.iii most of the Confucian texts were translated and chicidated with great erudition. It was but nat- ural lliat their pioneer studies in so difficult a field should be destined to give place to the more accurate an. I complete monuments of modern scholanship. But I'M n here they have worthy representatives in such ^rlii.lars as Father Zottoli and Henri Cordier, whose ( huH'sp studies give evidence of va.st erudition. The I '. I luc'ian texts have been made available to English n I I. rs by Professor Leggo. Besides his monumen- tal work in seven volumes, entitled "The Chinese
I I i-<ics" and his version of the Ch'un ts'ew", he has 'I ri the revised translations of the "Shuh", "She",
io", "Y", and "Li-Ki" in Volumes III, XVI, II, and XXVIII of "The Sacred Books of the
ill. The Doctrine. — (a) Religious Groundwork.
I Ih' religion of ancient ("hina, to which Confucius l;i\. his reverent adhesion was a fonn of nature- uiuship very closely approaching to monotheism. \\ lull' numerous spirits associated with natural phe- iiiiuHiia were recognized — spirits of mountains and ri\i rs. of land and grain, of the four quarters of the
III i\ Ills, the sun, moon, and stars — they were all sub- ■ I u ated to the supreme Heaven-god, T'ien (Heaven)
ailed Ti (Lord), or Sliany-ti (Supreme Lord). iar spirits were but his ministers, acting in obedi- > J his will. T'ien was the upholder of the moral IV-— 15
law, exercising a benign providence over men. Noth-
ing done in secret could escape his all-seeing eye. His
punishment for evil deeds took the form either of
calamities and early death, or of misfortune laid up
for the children of the evil-doer. In numerous passages
of the " Shao-" and "She-king", we find this belief
asserting itself as a motive to right conduct. That it
was not ignored by Confucius himself is shown by his
recorded saying, that "he who offends against
Heaven has no one to whom he can pray". Another
quasi-religious motive to the practice of virtue was
the belief that the souls of the departed relatives were
largely dependent for their happiness on the conduct
of their living descendants. It was taught that chil-
dren owed it as a duty to their dead parents to con-
tribute to their glory and happiness by lives of virtue.
To judge from the sayings of Confucius that have been
preserved, he did not disregard these motives to right
conduct, but he laid chief stress on the love of virtue
for its own sake. The principles of morality and
their concrete application to the varied relations of
life were embodied in the sacred texts, which in turn
represented the teachings of the great sages of the past
raised up by Heaven to instruct mankind. These
teachings were not inspired, nor were they revealed,
yet they were infallible. The sages were born with
wisdom meant by Heaven to enlighten the children of
men. It was thus a wisdom that was providential,
rather than supernatural. The notion of Divine posi-
tive revelation is absent from the Chinese texts. To
follow the path of duty as laid down in the authorita-
tive rules of conduct was within the reach of all men,
provided that their nature, good at birth, was not
hopelessly spoiled by vicious influences. Confucius
held the traditional view that all men are bom good.
Of anj-thing like original sin there is not a trace in his
teaching. He seems to have failed to recognize even
the existence of vicious hereditary tendencies. In his
view, what spoiled men was bad environment, evil
example, an inexcusable yielding to evil appetites
that everyone by right use of his natural powers could
and ought to control. Moral downfall caused by
suggestions of evil spirits had no place in his system.
Nor is there any notion of Divine grace to strengthen
the will and enlighten the mind in the struggle with
evil. There are one or two allusions to prayer, but
nothing to show that daily prayer was recommended
to the aspirant after perfection.
(b) Helps to Virtue. — In Confucianism the helps to the cultivation of virtue are natural and providential, nothing more. But in this development of moral perfection Confucius sought to enkindle in others the enthusi;istic love of virtue that he felt himself. To make oneself as good as possible, this was with him the main business of life. Everything that was con- ducive to the practice of goodness was to be eagerly sought and made use of. To this end right knowledge was to be held indispensable. Like Socrates, Con- fucius taught that vice sprang from ignorance and that knowledge led unfailingly to virtue. The knowl- edge on which he insisted was not purely scientific learning, but an edifying acquaintance with the sacred texts and the rules of virtue and propriety. Another factor on whic'h he laid great stress was the influence of good example. He loved to hold up to the admira- tion of his disciples the heroes and sages of the past, an acipituiitance with whose noble deeds and sayings he sought to ])romote by insisting on the study of the ancient cltissics. Many of his recorded sayings are eulogies of these valiant men of virtue. Nor did he fail to recognize the value of good, high-minded com- panions. His motto was, to associate with the truly great and to make friends of the most virtuous. Be- sides association with the good, Confucius urged on his disciples the importance of always welcoming the fraternal correction of one's faults. Then, too, the daily examination of conscience was inculcated. As
