GOSPEL
659
GOSPEL
proiessed that belief. As can readily be seen, varia-
tions are naturally to be expected in four distinct, and
in many waj-s independent, accoiuits of Christ's
words and deeds, so that their presence, instead of
going against, rather makes for the substantial value
of the Evangelical narratives. From among the vari-
ous answers which have been given to the alleged con-
tradictions of the Evangelists we simply mention the
following. Many a time the variations are due to the
fact that not one but two really distinct events are
described, or two distinct sayings recorded, in the
parallel passages of the Gospels. At other times, as is
indeed very often the case, the supposed contradic-
tions, when closely examinetl, turn out to be simply
differences naturally entailed, and therefore distinctly
accounted for, by the literary methods of the sacred
writers, and, more particularly, by the respective pur-
pose of the Evangelists in setting forth Christ's words
and deeds. Lastly, and in a more general way, the
Gospels should manifestly be treated with the same
fairness and equity as are invariably used with regard
to other historical records. "To borrow an illustra-
tion from classical literature, the 'Memoirs' of the
Apostles are treated [by unbeUevers] by a method
which no critic would apply to the 'Memoirs' of
Xenophon. The [Rationalistic] scholar admits the
truthfulness of the different pictures of Socrates which
were drawn by the philosopher, the moralist, and the
man of the world, and combines them into one figure
instinct with a noble life, half hidden and half revealed,
as men viewed it from different points; but he seems
often to forget his art when he studies the records of
the Saviour's work. Hence it is that superficial dif-
ferences are detached from the context which ex-
plains them. It is urged as an objection that parallel
narratives are not identical. Variety of details is
taken for discrepancy. The evidence may be wanting
which might harmonize narratives apparently dis-
cordant; but experience shows that it is as rash to
deny the probability of reconciliation as it is to fix the
exact method by which it may be made out. If, as a
general rule, we can follow the law which regulates the
characteristic peculiarities of each Evangelist, and see
in what way they answer to different aspects of one
truth, and combine as complementary elements in the
full representation of it, we may be well contented to
acquiesce in the existence of some difficulties which at
present admit of no exact solution, though they may
be a necessary conseciuence of that independence of
the Gospels which, in other cases, is the source of their
united power" (Westcott).
Catholic authors; Meignan, Les Evangiles et la Critique (Paris, 1870); Fillion, Introd. gin. axu: Evangiles (Paris, 1888); Trochon et Lesetre, Introd. a VEcriture sainte. III (Paris, 1890); Batiffol. Six lefnns sur les Evangiles (Paris. 1897); CoRNELY, Introd. sp. (Paris, 1897); Jacquier, //ts(. lies Liv. du N. T., II (Paris, 1905); Verdunoy, L'Evangile (Paris, 1907); Brassac, Manuel bibligue. Ill (Paris. 1908). — Non-Catholic: Westcott, Introd. lolheStudy of the Gospels (New York, 1887); Wilkinson, Four Lectures on the Early History of the Gospels (London. 1898); Godet, Introd. to the New Test. (tr. New York, 1899); Adeney, Biblical Introduction (New Y'ork. 1904).
Francis E. Gigot.
Gospel in the Liturgy. — I. Hi.story. — From the very earliest times the public reading of parts of the Bible was an important element in the Liturgy inher- ited from the service of the Synagogue. The first part of that service, before the bread and wine were brought up to be offered and consecrated, was the Liturgy of the catechumens. This consisted of prayers, litanies, hymns, and especially readings from Holy Scripture. 'The object of the readings was obvi- ously to instruct the people. Books were rare and few could read. What the Christian of the first cen- turies knew of the Bible, of Old Testament history, St. Paul's theology, and Our Lord's life he had learned from hearing the lessons in church, antl from the homi- lies that followed to explain them. In the first period the portions read were — like the rite — not yet stereo-
typed. St. Justin Martyr (d. c. 167) in describing the
rite he knew (apparently at Rome) begins by saying
that: "On the day of the sun, as it is called, all the
inhabitants of town and country come together in the
same place, and the commentaries of the Apostles
[imi^f-nfioi'ev/j.aTa rwv a.-Ko<nb\av — gospels], or writings
of the Prophets are read as long as time will allow.
Then, when the reader has stopped, he who presides
admonishes and exhorts all to imitate such glorious
e.xamples" (I Apol., 67). At this time, then, the text
was read continuously from a Bible, till the president
(the bishop who was celebrating) told the reader to
stop. These readings varied in niuiiber. A common
practice wa.s to read first from the Old Testament
(Prophetia), then from an Epistle (Apostolus) and
lastly from a Gospel (Evangclium). In any case the
Gospel was read last, as the fulfilment of all the rest.
Origen calls it the crown of all the holy writings (In
Johannem, i, 4, pra-f., P. G., XIV, 26). "We hear the
Gospel as if God were present", savs St. Augustine
("In Johannem", tract.. XXX, 1, P.L. XXXV, 1632). It
seems that in some places (in the West especially) for
a time catechumens were not allowed to stay for the
Gospel, which was considered part of the disciplina
arcani. At the Synod of Orange, in 441, and at
Valencia, in 524, thej^ wanted to change this rule On
the other hand, in all Eastern Liturgies (e. g. that of
the Apostolic Constitutions; Brightman, "Eastern
Liturgies", Oxford, 1896, p. 5) the catechumens are
dismissed after the Gospel.
The public reading of certain Gospels in churches was the most important factor in deciding which were to be considered canonical. The four that were re- ceived and read in the Liturgy everywhere were for that very reason admitted to the Canon of Scripture. We have evidences of this liturgical reading of the Gospel from eve;ry part of Christendom in the first centuries. For Syria, the Apostolic Constitutions tell us that when a bishop was ordained he blessed the people after the reading of the law and prophets and our Epistles and Acts and Gospels" (VIII, 5), and the manner of reading the Gospel is described in II, ,57 (Cabrol and Leclercq, "Monumenta eccl. hturgica", Paris, 1900, I, p. 225); the " Peregrinatio Silvia" (Etherise) describes the reading of the Gospel at Jeru- salem (Duchesne: "Origines", 493). The homilies of St. Basil and St. John Chrysostom explain the Gospel as read at C'a?sarea, Antioch, Constantinople. In Egypt, St. Cyril of Alexandria writes to the Emperor Theodosius II about the liturgical use of the Gospels (P. G., LXXVI, 471). In Africa, TertuUian mentions the same thing (adv. Marc, IV, 1) and tells us that the Roman Church "reads the Law and the Prophets together with the Gospels and Apostolic letters" (de priEScr., VI, 36). St. Cyprian ordained a certain con- fessor named Aurelian that he might " read the Gospel that forms martyrs " (Ep. xxxiii, P. L., IV, 328). In every rite then, from the beginning, as now, the read- ing of the Gospel formed the chief feature, the cardinal point of the liturgy of the catechmnens. It was not only read in the Liturgy. The "Peregrinatio Silviae" (loc. cit.) alludes to the Gospel read at cock-crow. So in the Byzantine Rite it still forms part of the Office of Orthros (Lauds). At Rome the Gospel of the Liturgy was read first, with a homily, at Matins, of which use we have now only a fragment. But the monastic Office still contains the whole Gospel read after the Te Deum.
Gradually the portions to be read in the Liturgy became fi.xed. The steps in the development of the texts used are: first in the book of the Gospels (or complete Bible) marginal signs are added to show how much is to be read each time. Then indexes are drawn up to show which passages are appointed for each tlay. These indexes (generally written at the be- ginning or end of the Bible) are called Synaxaria in Greek, Capitularia in Latin; they give the first and
