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MANUAL TRAINING 111 MANUEL COMNENUS iloman power 197 B. C, and was the birthplace of Vergil, 70 B. c. After nu- merous reverses of fortune, Mantua passed into the hands of Louis I., Duke of Gonzaga, in 1328. and under his rale attained great importance. It continued in the Gonzaga family till 1708, when it was taken by the Austrians. It was taken by Napoleon I. in 1796, and erected into the chief town of the department of the Mincio, but was restored to Austria in 1814. By the treaty of Zurich, in 1859, Mantua and Peschiera were the only towns of Lombardy left to the house of Austria, and these were surrendered in October, 1866. Pop. about 35,000. MANUAL TRAINING, in modern education, the training of the hand and eye in the use of typical tools, suitable materials, and mechanical methods, as well as in practical drafting, including the best methods of both freehand and accurate instrumental drawing of objects already constructed and of objects to be constructed. In practice the materials specially used are wood, iron, steel and brass; lead, tin, zinc, paper, leather, sand, textiles, plaster, and clay are taken chiefly as substitutes for more intracta- ble and expensive materials. Draftings include plans, elevations, sections, line and brush tinting and shading, letter- ing, methods of surface ornamentation, sketching, etc., with both pencil and pen. Manual training may be regarded either as a part of a person's general educa- tion or as a definite step in the acquisi- tion of a livelihood. As introduced into the curriculum of schools it may subserve both ends. Manual training schools are broader in their scope than the technical or trade schools, though they are the logi- cal outgrowth of them. The idea of introducing tool instruc- tion in the curriculum with science, mathematics and language in such a way that no one feature should be sub- ordinate to another, was early under- taken at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, at Worcester, and at the Washington University at St. Louis. Three shops were organized in St. Louis in 1877 where special students in the me- chanical arts could have some training, and in 1879 the St. Louis Manual Train- ing School was established and the school was opened in 1880. It had a great suc- cess. In 1882-1883 the National Educa- tional Association took up the matter and soon manual training became a part of the curriculum in high and elementary schools in all the large cities of the coun- try. Separate manual training schools have also been established in many cities. The present tendency in manual training is toward definite vocational training, and the work is carried on, as far as pos- sible, under natural conditions. In man- ual training schools which are for gen- eral training no moderate literary or sci- entific work can be out of place; on the contrary, a large share of the time must be given to literature, mathematics, and science. Shop instruction is given. The instructor at the bench, machine or an- vil explains the principles to be used or illustrated and executes in the presence of the whole class the day's lesson, giv- ing all needed information and freely using the blackboard. When it is pos- sible the pupils make working drawings of the piece or model to be executed, and questions are asked and answered, that all obscurities may be removed. The class then proceeds to the execution of the task, each at a separate bench and with his own tools, while the instructor gives additional help to such as need it. At a specified time the lesson ceases and the work is brought in, commented on and marked. It is not necessary that all the work assigned should be finished ; the essential thing is that it should be well begun and carried on with reasonable speed and accuracy. In a manual train- ing school, properly so called, no attempt is made to cultivate dexterity at the ex- pense of thought. MANUEL II., born in Lisbon, Portu- gal in 1889, two years after Crown Prince Luis, with the title of Duke of Beja, King of Portugal, 1908-1910. Scan- dalous stories were circulated about his life in Paris before he came to a throne to which he succeeded in Feb. 1, 1908, when his father Carlos I. and his brother Prince Luis were assassinated. He was acclaimed King May 6, 1908. On Oc- tober 1910, the Republicans abolished the monarchy and Manuel fled to England, finding refuge with his mother's brother, the Duke of Orleans, at Twickenham. In • 1913 Manuel married Princess Augustine Victoria of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. MANUEL I., COMNENUS (man'u-el kom-ne'-nus), Emperor of Constanti- nople; born in 1120. He was the younger son of the Emperor John Comnenus, whom he succeeded, to the prejudice of his brother Isaac, in 1143. His long reign was almost a continual succession of wars. He obtained several victories oyer the Sultan of Iconium in the year of his accession; the next year carried on war with Raymond, Prince of Antioch; and in 1147, on the arrival of the cru- saders at Constantinople, under the Em- i peror Conrad and Louis VII. of France, he is charged with having flattered the Germans with promises, and by treacher-