Common Schools (including Elementary and Secondary Public Schools only).
| Total number of pupils of all ages | 16,820,386[1] |
| Average number of days schools open | 151·2 |
| Average number of days attended by each pupil | 106·2 |
| Number of male teachers | 105,773 |
| Number of female teachers | 369,465 |
| Number of school houses | 259,115 |
| Average monthly wage of male teachers | $56·10 |
| Average monthly wage of female teachers | $43·67 |
| Value of all school property | $843,309,410 |
| Income from permanent funds and rents | $16,579,551 |
| Income from State taxes | $46,281,501 |
| Income from local taxes | $230,424,554 |
| Income from other sources | $50,317,132 |
| Expenditure on sites, buildings, furniture, libraries and apparatus | $65,817,870 |
| Expenditure on salaries | $196,980,919 |
| Expenditure on other purposes | $67,882,012 |
| Expenditure per head of population | $3·90 |
| Expenditure per pupil | $27·98 |
The Bureau of Education in 1907 received reports from 606 universities, colleges and technological schools; they had a teaching force of 24,679, and an enrolment of 293,343 students. The number of public and private normal schools reporting was 259, with an enrolment of 70,439 students in the regular training courses for teachers, 12,541 graduates and 3660 instructors. There were 148 manual and industrial training schools (independently of the manual training taught in the public schools and in 66 Indian schools), with 1692 teachers and an enrolment of 68,427 students; and 445 independent commercial and business schools, with 2856 instructors and 137,364 students. (X.)
Bibliography.—For the study of education as an aspect of religious, social, moral and intellectual development, the material is practically inexhaustible, and much of the most valuable does not treat specifically of the education given in schools and colleges. The most useful guide is E. P. Cubberley’s Syllabus of Lectures on the History of Education (1902), which consists of an analytic outline of topics with copious and detailed references to authorities. See also W. S. Monroe’s Bibliography of Education (1897). The best general history in English is P. Monroe’s Text-Book in the History of Education (1905), which, like Davidson’s much briefer History of Education, treats the subject broadly and in relation to other aspects of life. Williams’s History of Ancient, Medieval, and Modern Education is a useful statement of the main facts of educational progress taken somewhat by itself. In German the standard work is K. A. Schmid’s Geschichte der Erziehung, a comprehensive and detailed treatment in which each period is dealt with by a specialist. Ziegler’s Geschichte der Pädagogik is a good short history. In French, Letourneau’s L’Évolution de l’éducation is especially good on ancient and non-European education. Draper’s Intellectual Development of Europe is vigorous and interesting, but marred by its depreciation of the work of the Church. Guizot’s History of Civilization is still of value, as are parts of Hallam’s Literary History. Lecky’s History of the Rise and Influence of the Spirit of Rationalism in Europe, and Buckle’s History of Civilization in England, contain much that is of value. The best encyclopaedias are W. Rein’s Encyklopädisches Handbuch der Pädagogik, and F. Buisson’s Dictionnaire de pédagogie, première partie. Sir Henry Craik’s The State and Education (1883) is an excellent text-book on national education.
Of books dealing with special periods and topics, S. Laurie’s Historical Sketch of Pre-Christian Education, Freeman’s Schools of Hellas, Girard’s L’Éducation athénienne au Vᵉ et au IVᵉ siècle avant J.-C., Davidson’s Education of the Greek People, Mahaffy’s Old Greek Education and Greek Life and Thought, Nettleship’s article on “Education in Plato’s Republic” in Hellenica, Capes’s University Life in Athens, Hobhouse’s Theory and Practice of Ancient Education, Grasberger’s Erziehung und Unterricht im classischen Alterthum, Wilkin’s Roman Education, and Clarke’s Education of Children at Rome, are valuable for classical times.
For the somewhat obscure transition centuries there is much of value in Taylor’s Classical Heritage of the Middle Ages, Dill’s Roman Society in the Last Century of the Western Empire, especially the chapter on “Culture in the 4th and 5th centuries,” Boissier’s La Fin du paganisme, and Hatch’s Influence of Greek Thought upon the Christian Church.
The best general account of medieval education is in Drane’s Christian Schools and Scholars; and J. B. Mullinger’s Schools of Charles the Great treats well of the Carolingian Revival. G. B. Adams’s Civilization during the Middle Ages is excellent; and Sandys’s History of Classical Scholarship is a valuable book of reference. On the scholastic philosophy Turner’s History of Philosophy, and Hauréau’s Histoire de la philosophie scolastique, are useful. Medieval schools are described in Furnivall’s preface to The Babees Book, which deals with “Education in Early England,” and in Leach’s Old Yorkshire Schools and History of Winchester College. The most important books on the universities are Rashdall’s Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages, Jourdain’s Histoire de l’université de Paris aux XVIIᵉ et XVIIIᵉ siècles, Lyte’s History of the University of Oxford to 1530, and Mullinger’s History of the University of Cambridge to the Accession of Charles I. Paulsen’s Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts auf den deutschen Schulen und Universitäten is the best history of education in Germany.
On the Renaissance in Italy, Villari’s Introduction to his Life and Times of Machiavelli, and Burckhardt’s Die Kultur der Renaissance in Italien (translated into English), are of the first importance. Other valuable books are the first volume of the Cambridge Modern History and Symonds’s great work on The Renaissance in Italy, especially the volume on The Revival of Learning. Dealing more specifically with education are Woodward’s excellent monographs on Education during the Renaissance, Vittorino da Feltre and Erasmus. Janssen’s Geschichte des deutschen Volkes (translated into English) gives a good account of the social and intellectual condition of Germany in the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries. Christie’s Life of Étienne Dolet is of value for the Renaissance in France. For the movement in England Seebohm’s Oxford Reformers, Gasquet’s Eve of the Reformation in England, Einstein’s The Italian Renaissance in England, and Leach’s English Schools at the Reformation, 1546–1548, are particularly important.
For later times the material is chiefly in the form of monographs, of which the following, among others, are of value: Adamson’s Pioneers of Modern Education, Laas’s Die Pädagogik des Johannes Sturm, Beard’s Port Royal, vol. ii., Kuno Fischer’s Fr. Bacon und seine Nachfolger, Laurie’s John Amos Comenius, Morley’s Rousseau, Pinloche’s La Réforme de l’éducation en Allemagne au dix-huitième siècle, Biedermann’s Deutschlands geistige, sittliche, und gesellige Zustände im XVIII. Jahrhundert.
For the 19th century and after, the best sources of information are the official Reports, such as those of the Royal Commissions on the English Universities, the Public Schools, and the other English secondary schools; the “Special Reports,” issued by the English Board of Education; the encyclopaedic annual Reports of the American Commissioner of Education (dealing not only with the United States, but with progress in other countries); monographs in the French Musée pédagogique, and various German Reports.
For education in the United States, see also Boone’s History of Education in U.S.A. (1889); N. M. Butler (editor), Education in the U.S.A. (1900), a series of monographs prepared for the Paris Exposition; E. G. Dexter’s History of Education in the United States (1904); and the Proceedings of the National Educational Association.
On the leading writers on education the monographs in the Great Educator Series are useful, and editions and translations of the best known of these writers are available. The greatest systematic collection is the Monumenta Germaniae paedagogica. On the development of the means of education, Montmorency’s two books on State Intervention in English Education from the Earliest Times to 1833, and The Progress of Education in England, Balfour’s Educational Systems of Great Britain and Ireland, Allain’s L’Instruction primaire en France avant la Révolution, Lantoine’s Histoire de l’enseignement secondaire en France au XVIIIᵉ et au début du XVIIIᵉ siècle, and Konrad Fischer’s Geschichte des deutschen Volkschullehrerstands, may be mentioned. (J. Wn.)
EDWARD, “The Elder” (d. 924), king of the Angles and Saxons, was the second son of Alfred the Great, and with his sister Æthelflæd was carefully educated at the court of his father. During his father’s lifetime he took an active part in the campaigns against the Danes, especially in that of 894, and as early as 898 he signs a charter as “rex,” showing that he was definitely associated with his father in the kingship. He succeeded his father in October 899,[2] but not without opposition. The Ætheling Æthelwold, son of Alfred’s elder brother Æthelred, seized Wimborne and Christchurch. Edward advanced against him, and Æthelwold took refuge among the Danes in Northumbria. In 904 Æthelwold landed in Essex, and in the next year he enticed the East Anglian Danes to revolt. They ravaged all southern Mercia and, in spite of Edward’s activity, returned home victorious, though Æthelwold fell in the battle of the Holme. In 905 or 906 Edward made a peace with the East Anglian and Northumbrian Danes at “Yttingaford,” near Linslade in Buckinghamshire, perhaps the peace known as “the Laws of Edward and Guthrum.” In 909 and 910 fresh campaigns took place owing to southerly raids by the Danes, and victories were won at Tettenhall and Wednesfield in Staffordshire.[3] From 907 onwards Edward and his sister Æthelflæd,
- ↑ In private schools there were also 1,304,547 pupils.
- ↑ See Stevenson’s article in Eng. Hist. Rev. vol. xiii. pp. 71-77. The whole chronology of this reign is very difficult and certainly is often impossible of attainment.
- ↑ It is possible that these battles are one and the same; the places are within 2 to 3 m. of each other.
