elevation on the island, which rises as a spur N.W. of the city of Santo Domingo. In the Sierra del Cibao, the highest summit is the Pico del Yaqui (9700 ft.). The southern range runs from the Bay of Neyba due W. to Cape Tiburon. Its highest points are La Selle (8900 ft.) and La Hotte (7400 ft.). The plain of Seybo or Los Llanos is the largest of the Haitian plains. It stretches eastwards from the river Ozama for 95 m. and has an average width of 16 m. It is perfectly level, abundantly watered, and admirably adapted for the rearing of cattle. But perhaps the grandest is the Vega Real, or Royal Plain, as it was called by Columbus, which lies between the Cibao and Monti Cristi ranges. It stretches from Samana Bay to Manzanillo Bay, a distance of 140 m., but is interrupted in the centre by a range of hills in which rise the rivers which drain it. The northern part of this plain, however, is usually known as the Valley of Santiago. Most of the large valleys are in a state of nature, in part savanna, in part wooded, and all very fertile.
There are four large rivers. The Yaqui, rising in the Pico del Yaqui, falls, after a tortuous north-westerly course through the valley of Santiago, into Manzanillo Bay; its mouth is obstructed by shallows, and it is navigable only for canoes. The Neyba, or South Yaqui, also rises in the Pico del Yaqui and flows S. into the Bay of Neyba. In the mountains within a few miles from the sources of these rivers, rise the Yuna and the Artibonite. The Yuna drains the Vega Real, flows into Samana Bay, and is navigable by light-draught vessels for some distance from its mouth. The Artibonite flows through the valley of its name into the Gulf of Gonaïve. Of the smaller rivers the Ozama, on which the city of Santo Domingo stands, is the most important. The greatest lake is that of Enriquillo or Xaragua, at a height of 300 ft. above sea-level. It is 27 m. long by 8 m. broad and very deep. Though 25 m. from the sea its waters are salt, and the Haitian negroes call it Etang Salé. After heavy rains it occasionally forms a continuous sheet of water with another lake called Azuey, or Etang Saumatre, which is 16 m. long by 4 m. broad; on these occasions the united lake has a total length of 60 m. and is larger than the Lake of Geneva. Farther S. is the Icoten de Limon, 5 m. long by 2 m. broad, a fresh-water lake with no visible outlet. Smaller lakes are Rincon and Miragoane. There are no active volcanoes, but earthquakes are not infrequent.
Geology.—The geology of Haiti is still very imperfectly known, and large tracts of the island have never been examined by a geologist. It is possible that the schists that have been observed in some parts of the island may be of Pre-cretaceous age, but the oldest rocks in which fossils have yet been found belong to the Cretaceous System, and the geological sequence is very similar to that of Jamaica. Excluding the schists of doubtful age, the series begins with sandstones and conglomerates, containing pebbles of syenite, granite, diorite, &c.; and these are overlaid by marls, clays and limestones containing Hippurites. Then follows a series of sandstones, clays and limestones with occasional seams of lignite, evidently of shallow-water origin. These are referred by R. T. Hill to the Eocene, and they are succeeded by chalky beds which were laid down in a deeper sea and which probably correspond with the Montpelier beds of Jamaica (Oligocene). Finally, there are limestones and marls composed largely of corals and molluscs, which are probably of very late Tertiary or Post-tertiary age. Until, however, the island has been more thoroughly examined, the correlation of the various Tertiary and Post-tertiary deposits must remain doubtful. Some of the beds which Hill has placed in the Eocene have been referred by earlier writers to the Miocene. Tippenhauer describes extensive eruptions of basalt of Post-pliocene age.
Fauna and Flora.—The fauna is not extensive. The agouti is the largest wild mammal. Birds are few, excepting water-fowl and pigeons. Snakes abound, though few are venomous. Lizards are numerous, and insects swarm in the low parts, with tarantulas, scorpions and centipedes. Caymans are found in the lakes and rivers, and the waters teem with fish and other sea food. Wild cattle, hogs and dogs, descendants of those brought from Europe, roam at large on the plains and in the forests. The wild hogs furnish much sport to the natives, who hunt them with dogs trained for the purpose.
In richness and variety of vegetable products Haiti is not excelled by any other country in the world. All tropical plants and trees grow in perfection, and nearly all the vegetables and fruits of temperate climates may be successfully cultivated in the highlands. Among indigenous products are cotton, rice, maize, tobacco, cocoa, ginger, native indigo (indigo marron or sauvage), arrowroot, manioc or cassava, pimento, banana, plantain, pine-apple, artichoke, yam and sweet potato. Among the important plants and fruits are sugarcane, coffee, indigo (called indigo franc, to distinguish it from the native), melons, cabbage, lucerne, guinea grass and the bread-fruit, mango, caimite, orange, almond, apple, grape, mulberry and fig. Most of the imported fruits have degenerated from want of care, but the mango, now spread over nearly the whole island, has become almost a necessary article of food; the bread-fruit has likewise become common, but is not so much esteemed. Haiti is also rich in woods, especially in cabinet and dye woods; among the former are mahogany, manchineel, satinwood, rosewood, cinnamon wood (Canella alba), yellow acoma (Sideroxylon mastichodendron) and gri-gri; and among the latter are Brazil wood, logwood, fustic and sassafras. On the mountains are extensive forests of pine and a species of oak; and in various parts occur the locust, ironwood, cypress or Bermuda cedar, palmetto and many kinds of palms.
Climate.—Owing to the great diversity of its relief Haiti presents a wider range of climate than any other part of the Antilles. The yearly rainfall is abundant, averaging about 120 in., but the wet and dry seasons are clearly divided. At Port-au-Prince the rainy season lasts from April to October, but varies in other parts of the island, so that there is never a season when rain is general. The mountain districts are constantly bathed in dense mists and heavy dews, while other districts are almost rainless. Owing to its sheltered position the heat at Port-au-Prince is greater than elsewhere. In summer the temperature there ranges between 80° and 95° F. and in winter between 70° and 80° F. Even in the highlands the mercury never falls below 45° F. Hurricanes are not so frequent as in the Windward Isles, but violent gales often occur. The prevailing winds are from the east.
The Republic of Haiti.—Haiti is divided into two parts, the negro republic of Haiti owning the western third of the island, while the remainder belongs to Santo Domingo (q.v.) or the Dominican Republic. Between these two governments there exists the strongest political antipathy.
Although but a small state, with an area of only 10,204 sq. m., the republic of Haiti is, in many respects, one of the most interesting communities in the world, as it is the earliest and most successful example of a state peopled, and governed on a constitutional model, by negroes. At its head is a president assisted by two chambers, the members of which are elected and hold office under a constitution of 1889. This constitution, thoroughly republican in form, is French in origin, as are also the laws, language, traditions and customs of Haiti. In practice, however, the government resolves itself into a military despotism, the power being concentrated in the hands of the president. The Haitians seem to possess everything that a progressive and civilized nation can desire, but corruption is spread through every portion and branch of the government. Justice is venal, and the police are brutal and inefficient. Since 1869 the Roman Catholic has been the state religion, but all classes of society seem to be permeated with a thinly disguised adherence to the horrid rites of Voodoo (q.v.), although this has been strenuously denied. The country is divided into 5 départements, 23 arrondissements and 67 communes. Each département and arrondissement is governed by a general in the army. The army numbers about 7000 men, and the navy consists of a few small vessels. Elementary education is free, and there are some 400 primary schools; secondary education is mainly in the hands of the church. The Sisters of Charity and the Christian Brothers have schools at Port-au-Prince, where there is also a lyceum, a medical and a law school. The children of the wealthier classes are usually sent to France for their education. The unit of money is the gourde, the nominal value of which is the same as the American dollar, but it is subject to great fluctuations. The revenue is almost entirely derived from customs, paid both on imports and exports. There being a lack of capital and enterprise, the excessive customs dues produce a very depressed condition of trade. Imports are consequently confined to bare necessaries, the cheapest sorts of dry and fancy goods, matches, flour, salt beef and pork, codfish, lard, butter and similar provisions. The exports are coffee, cocoa, logwood, cotton, gum, honey, tobacco and sugar. The island is one of the most fertile in the world, and if it had an enlightened and stable government, an energetic people, and a little capital, its agricultural possibilities would seem to be endless. Communications are bad; the roads constructed during the French occupation have degenerated into mere bridle tracks. There is a coast service of steamers, maintained since 1863, and 26 ports are regularly visited every ten days. Foreign communication is excellent, more foreign steamships visiting this island than any other in the West Indies. A railway from Port-au-Prince runs through the Plain of Cul de Sac for 28 m. to Manneville on the Etang Saumatre, another runs from Cap Haitien to La Grande Rivière, 15 m. distant.
The people are almost entirely pure-blooded negroes, the mulattoes, who form about 10% of the population, being a rapidly diminishing and much-hated class. The negroes are a kindly, hospitable people, but ignorant and lazy. They have
