industry, and salt and sulphur are obtained. Krasnovodsk, which is the capital of the Transcaspian province, was founded in 1869.
KRASNOYARSK, a town of Eastern Siberia, capital of the
government of Yeniseisk, on the left bank of the Yenisei River,
at its confluence with the Kacha, and on the highway from Moscow
to Irkutsk, 670 m. by rail N.W. from the latter. Pop. (1900),
33,337. It has a municipal museum and a railway technical
school. It was founded by Cossacks in 1628, and during the
early years of its existence it was more than once besieged by the
Tatars and the Kirghiz. Its commercial importance depends
entirely upon the gold-washings of the Yeniseisk district.
Brick-making, soap-boiling, tanning and iron-founding are
carried on. The climate is very cold, but dry. The Yenisei
River is frozen here for 160 days in the year.
KRASZEWSKI, JOSEPH IGNATIUS (1812–1887), Polish
novelist and miscellaneous writer, was born at Warsaw on the
28th of July 1812, of an aristocratic family. He showed a
precocious talent for authorship, beginning his literary career
with a volume of sketches from society as early as 1829, and for
more than half a century scarcely ever intermitting his literary
production, except during a period of imprisonment upon a
charge of complicity in the insurrection of 1831. He narrowly
escaped being sent to Siberia, but, rescued by the intercession
of powerful friends, he settled upon his landed property near
Grodno, and devoted himself to literature with such industry
that a mere selection from his fiction alone, reprinted at Lemberg
from 1871 to 1875, occupies 102 volumes. He was thus the most
conspicuous literary figure of his day in Poland. His extreme
fertility was suggestive of haste and carelessness, but he declared
that the contrivance of his plot gave him three times as much
trouble as the composition of his novel. Apart from his gifts
as a story-teller, he did not possess extraordinary mental powers;
the “profound thoughts” culled from his writings by his admiring
biographer Bohdanowicz are for the most part mere truisms.
His copious invention is nevertheless combined with real truth
to nature, especially evinced in the beautiful little story of
Jermola the Potter (1857), from which George Eliot appears to
have derived the idea of Silas Marner, though she can only have
known it at second hand. Compared with the exquisite art of
Silas Marner, Jermola appears rude and unskilful, but it is not
on this account the less touching in its fidelity to the tenderest
elements of human nature. Kraszewski’s literary activity falls
into two well-marked epochs, the earlier when, residing upon his
estate, he produced romances like Jermola, Ulana (1843),
Kordecki (1852), devoid of any special tendency, and that after
1863, when the suspicions of the Russian government compelled
him to settle in Dresden. To this period belong several political
novels published under the pseudonym of Boleslawita, historical
fictions such as Countess Cosel, and the “culture” romances
Morituri (1874–1875) and Resurrecturi (1876), by which he is
perhaps best known out of his own country. In 1884 he was
accused of plotting against the German government and
sentenced to seven years’ imprisonment in a fortress, but was
released in 1886, and withdrew to Geneva, where he died on the
19th of March 1887. His remains were brought to Poland and
interred at Cracow. Kraszewski was also a poet and dramatist;
his most celebrated poem is his epic Anafielas (3 vols., 1840–1843)
on the history of Lithuania. He was indefatigable as literary
critic, editor and translator, wrote several historical works, and
was conspicuous as a restorer of the study of national archaeology
in Poland. Among his most valuable works were Litwa
(Warsaw, 2 vols., 1847–1850), a collection of Lithuanian antiquities;
and an aesthetic history of Poland (Posen, 3 vols.,
1873–1875).
(R. G.)
KRAUSE, KARL CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH (1781–1832),
German philosopher, was born at Eisenberg on the 4th of May
1781, and died at Munich on the 27th of September 1832.
Educated at first at Eisenberg, he proceeded to Jena, where he
studied philosophy under Hegel and Fichte and became privatdozent
in 1802. In the same year, with characteristic imprudence,
he married a wife without dowry. Two years after,
lack of pupils compelled him to move to Rudolstadt and later to
Dresden, where he gave lessons in music. In 1805 his ideal of a
universal world-society led him to join the Freemasons, whose
principles seemed to tend in the direction he desired. He
published two books on Freemasonry, Die drei ältesten Kunsturkunden
der Freimaurerbrüderschaft and Höhere Vergeistigung
der echt überlieferten Grundsymbole der Freimaurerei, but his
opinions drew upon him the opposition of the Masons. He
lived for a time in Berlin and became a privatdozent, but was
unable to obtain a professorship. He therefore proceeded to
Göttingen and afterwards to Munich, where he died of apoplexy
at the very moment when the influence of Franz von Baader
had at last obtained a position for him.
One of the so-called “Philosophers of Identity,” Krause endeavoured to reconcile the ideas of a God known by Faith or Conscience and the world as known to sense. God, intuitively known by Conscience, is not a personality (which implies limitations), but an all-inclusive essence (Wesen), which contains the Universe within itself. This system he called Panentheism, a combination of Theism and Pantheism. His theory of the world and of humanity is universal and idealistic. The world itself and mankind, its highest component, constitute an organism (Gliedbau), and the universe is therefore a divine organism (Wesengliedbau). The process of development is the formation of higher unities, and the last stage is the identification of the world with God. The form which this development takes, according to Krause, is Right or the Perfect Law. Right is not the sum of the conditions of external liberty but of absolute liberty, and embraces all the existence of nature, reason and humanity. It is the mode, or rationale, of all progress from the lower to the highest unity or identification. By its operation the reality of nature and reason rises into the reality of humanity. God is the reality which transcends and includes both nature and humanity. Right is, therefore, at once the dynamic and the safeguard of progress. Ideal society results from the widening of the organic operation of this principle from the individual man to small groups of men, and finally to mankind as a whole. The differences disappear as the inherent identity of structure predominates in an ever-increasing degree, and in the final unity Man is merged in God.
The comparatively small area of Krause’s influence was due partly to the overshadowing brilliance of Hegel, and partly to two intrinsic defects. The spirit of his thought is mystical and by no means easy to follow, and this difficulty is accentuated, even to German readers, by the use of artificial terminology. He makes use of germanized foreign terms which are unintelligible to the ordinary man. His principal works are (beside those quoted above): Entwurf des Systems der Philosophie (1804); System der Sittenlehre (1810); Das Urbild der Menschheit (1811); and Vorlesungen über das System der Philosophie (1828). He left behind him at his death a mass of unpublished notes, part of which has been collected and published by his disciples, H. Ahrens (1808–1874), Leonhardi, Tiberghien and others.
See H. S. Lindemann, Uebersichtliche Darstellung des Lebens . . . Krauses (1839); P. Hohlfeld, Die Krausesche Philosophie (1879); A. Procksch, Krause, ein Lebensbild nach seinen Briefen (1880); R. Eucken, Zur Erinnerung an Krause (1881); B. Martin, Krauses Leben und Bedeutung (1881), and Histories of Philosophy by Zeller, Windelband and Höffding.
KRAWANG, a residency of the island of Java, Dutch East Indies, bounded E. and S. by Charibon and the Preanger, W. by Batavia, and N. by the Java Sea, and comprising a few insignificant islands. The natives are Sundanese, but contain a large admixture of Middle Javanese and Bantamers in the north, where they established colonies in the 17th century. Like the residency of Batavia, the northern half of Krawang is flat and occasionally marshy, while the southern half is mountainous and volcanic. Warm and cold mineral, salt and sulphur springs occur in the hills. Salt is extracted by the government, though in smaller quantities now than formerly. The principal products are rice, coffee, sugar, vanilla, indigo and nutmeg. Fishing is practised along the coast and forest culture in the hills, while the
