and in Dysenteric Liver Abscess, " Johns Hopkins Hasp. Bull. vol. i. (1890). Erysipelas: Coley, Proc. Roy. Soc. Med. (London, 1909), vol. iii. (Surg. Sect.), p. i; Fehleisen, Aetiologie dcr Erysipels (Berlin, 1883). Filariasis: Low, " On Filaria Nocturna in ' Cule.x, ' " Brit. Med. Journ. vol. i. (1900); Manson, Tropical Diseases (3rd cd., London, 1903). Gonorrhoea: Bumm, Der Mikro-organism us d. gonorrh. Schkiinhaut-Erkrankungen (Wiesbaden, 1885); See, Le Gonocoque (Paris, 1896). Glanders: Koranyi, in Nothnagel's Specielle Pathologic, Bd. v. (1897); Loeffler and Schiitz, Deutsche nted. Wochenschr. (1882, Eng. trans., 1886); M'Fadycan, "Pulmonary Lesions of Glanders, " Journ. Comp. Path, and Therap. vol. viii. (1895); Journ. State Medicine, pp. i, 65, 72, 125 (1905). Hydrophobia: Babes and Lepp, " Rech. s. 1. vaccination antirabique, " Ann. de I'inst. Pasteur, t. lii. (1889); Hogyes, in Nothnagel's Specielle Pathologie, Bd. v. (1897); Negri, Boll. soc. nied. chir. di Pavia, Nos. 2, 4 (1903); Ztschr. j. Hyg., Bd. xliii. S. 507, Bd. xliv. S. 519 (1903); Pasteur, Traitement de la rage (Paris, 1886), and numerous papers in the Compt. rend. acad. d. sc. (Paris, from 1881 onwards), and in Ann. de I'inst. Pasteur, t. i. (1887) and t. ii. (1888); Tizzoni and Centanni, Lancet, vol. ii. (1895). Influenza: Canon, " Uebereinen Mikro-org. i., Blute v. Influenzakranken, " Deutsche med. Wochenschr. (1892); Pfeiffer, " Vorl. Mitth. il. d. Erreger d. Influenza, " Deutsche med. Wochenschr. (1892). K&la-dzar: Laveran et Mesnil, Compt. rend, acad. d. sc. c.'cx.wii. p. 957 (Paris, 1903); Leishman, in Allbutt and RoUeston's Syst. Med. vol. ii., pt. ii. p. 226 (2nd ed., London, 1909); Patton, Scientific Memoirs Gov. India, No. 27 (1907), No. 31 (1907); Rogers, Brit. Med. Journ. i. 427, 490, 557 (1907). Leprosy: Hansen and Looft, Leprosy in its Clin, and Path. Aspects, trans, by N. Walker (Bristol, 1895); Mitth. u. Verhandl. d. internal, wissensch. Lepra-Conferenz z. Berlin (1897); Rake, Reports of the Trinidad Asylum (1886-1893); Report of the Leprosy Commission to India (1893). Mycetoma or Madura Foot: Bocarro, " Analysis of 100 Cases of Mycetoma, " Lancet, vol. ii. (1893); Boyce and Surveyor, Proc. Roy. Soc. Land. vol. liii. (1893); Vandyke Carter, Trans. Path. Soc. Lond. vol. xxiv. (1873), and " On Mycetoma or the Fungus Disease of India " (London, 1874); Kanthack, Journ. Path, and Bact. vol. i. (1892); Lewis and Cunningham, Physiol, and Pathol. Researches (1875); " Fungus Disease of India, " Quoin's Diet, of Medicine, vol. i. (1894); Unna and Delbanco, Monats. f. prakt. Derm. Bd. xxx., S. 545 (1900); Vincent, " Et. s. 1. parasite d. pied Madure, " Ann. de I'inst. Pasteur, t. viii. (1894). Malaria: Celli, Malaria, trans, by Eyre (London, 1900); Nuttall, " Neuere Forsch. ii. d. Rolle d. Mosquitos, &c., " Centralbl. f. Bact. u. Parasitenk. Abt. I. (1900), and in Journ. Trop. Med. vols, ii., iii. (1900), and Journ. Hyg. vols. i., ii. (1901); Nuttall and Shipley, Journ. Hyg. i. 4, 45, 269, 451 (1901), ii. 58 (1902); Ruge in KoUe and Wassermann's Handb. d. path. Mikro-org. Erganz. Bd. (Jena, 1907). Malta Fever: Bruce, " Note on the Discovery of a Micro-organism in Malta Fever, " Practitioner (1887); " Obs. on Malta Fever, " Brit. Med. Journ. vol. i. (1889); " Malta Fever, " in Davidson's Hygiene of Warm Climates (Edinburgh, 1893); Eyre, Quart. Journ. Med. i. 209 (1908); Hughes, " Investig. into the Etiology of Mediterranean Fevers, " Lancet, ii. (1892); and in Ann. de I'inst. Pasteur, t. viii. (1893); Reports of Commission on Mediterranean Fever (London, 1905 et seq.). Infective Meningitis: Neumann and Schafi^er, Z. Aetiol. d. eiterig. Meningitis; Virch. Archiv. Bd. cix. (1887); Weichselbaum, Fortschritte d. Medicin, Bd. v. (1887). Plague: Bannerman, Journ. Hyg. vi. 179 (1906); and Edin. Med. Journ. n.s., xxiii. 417 (1908); Bitter, " Ueb. d. Haflfkine'schen Schutzimpfungen gegen Pest, " Zeits. f. Hygiene, Bd. .xx. (1899); Calmette et Salimbeni, Ann. de I'inst. Pasteur, xiii. 865 (1899); Haffkine, "Further Papers relating to the Outbreak of Plague in India, No. III." (London, 1898), and Brit. Med. Journ., i. 1461 (1897); Kitasato, The Lancet, ii. 325, 428 (1894), and Brit. Med. Journ. ii. 369 (1894); Klein, Studies in the iBacteriology and Etiology of Oriental Plague (London, 1906); Lamb, " Summary of Work of the Plague Commission " (Calcutta, 1908); Lowson, Lancet, ii. 325 (1894), see also Brit. Med. Journ. ii. 369 (1894); Reports on Plague Investigations in India, in Journ. Hyg. vi. 421 (1906), vii. 323, 693 (1907-1908); Simond, Ann. de I'inst. Pasteur, xii. 625 (1898); Yersin, "La Peste bubonique a Hong-Kong, " Ann. de I'inst. Pasteur, t. viii. (1894); also Yersin, Calmette and Borrel, op. cit., t. ix. (1895). Relapsing Fever: Koch, Deutsche med. Wochenschr. (1879); Soudakewitch, " Recherches s. 1. fievre recurrent, " Ann. de I'inst. Pasteur, t. v. (1891). Sleeping Sickness: Browning, Journ. Path, and Bacterial, xii. 166 (1908); Bulletin of the Sleeping Sickness Bureau (No. i, London, Oct. 1908 onwards); Dutton and Todd, " First Report of the Trypanosomiasis Expedition to Senegal, 1902" (Liverpool, 1903); Dutton, Todd and Christy, Brit. Med. Journ. i. 186 (1904); Ehrlich, Berl. klin. Wochenschr. S.S. 233, 280, 310, 341 (1907); Laveran and Mensil, Trypanosomes and Trypanosomiases, trans, by Nabarro (London, 1907); Royal Society, Reports of the Sleeping Sickness Commission, No. i (London, Aug. 1903 onwards). Suppuration and Septicaemia: Watson Cheyne, Suppuration and Septic Diseases (Edinburgh and London, 1889). Surra: Evans, Report on "Surra" Disease (Bombay, 1880); Lewis, Appendix, 14th Ann. Rep. of Sanit. Commission with the Govt, of India (1878); Lingard, Report on Surra in Equines, Bovines, Buffaloes and Canines (2 vols., Bombay, 1893 and 1899); Steci, Investig. into an Obscure and Fatal Disease among Transport Mules in British Burma (1883). Syphilis: Metchnikoff, Lancet, i. 1553,
1629 (1906); The New Hygiene (Harbcn Lectures, London, 1906); Ann. de I'inst. Pasteur, xxi. 753 (1907); Metchnikoff and Roux, Ann. de I'inst. Pasteur, t. xvii.-xx. (1903-1906); Schaudinn and Hoffmann, Arb. a. d. Kaiserl Gesundheitsamte, xxii. 527 (1905); Berl. klin. Wochenschr. S. 673 (1905); Wassermann, Bsrl. klin. Wochenschr. S.S. 1599, 1634 (1907); Wassermann, Neisscr and Bruck, Deutsche med. Wochenschr. S. 745 (1906). Tetanus: Behring, " Die Blutscrumthcrapie, " Zeits. f. Hygiene, Bd. xii. (1892); Knud Faber, Om Tetanos som Infrktionssygdom (Copenhagen, 1890); Kitasato, Zeits. f. Hygiene, Bd. vii. (1889), and Bd. xii. (1892); Nicolaier, Beitr. z. Aetiol. d. Wundstarrkrampfes (Gottingen, 1885); Rose, Der Starrkrampf b. Menschen (Stuttgart, 1897); Roux and Borrel, " Tetanos cerebral et immunite contre le tetanos, " Ann. de I'inst. Pasteur, t. xii. (1898); Vaillard, Vaillard and Rouget, Vaillard and Vincent, various articles in the Ann. de I'inst. Pasteur, t. v. (1891), and t. vi. (1892); Wassermann and Takaki, " Ueb. tetanusantitox. Eigenschaftcn d. normalcn Centralncrvensystems, " Berl. klin. Wochenschr. (1898). Tsetse-fly Disease: Bradford and Plimmer, Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. Ixv. 274 (1899); Bruce, Tsetse-fly Disease or Nagana, in Zidtdand (Durban, 1895); and London, 1897; Kanthack, Durham and Blandford, Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. Ixiv. 100 (1898). 'Tuberculosis: Bosanquet and Eyre, Serums, Vaccines and Toxines (2nd ed., London, 1909); Calmette, Compt. rend. acad. d. sc. cxiiv. 1324 (Paris, 1907); Fortescue-Brickdale, Bristol Med. Chir. Jouryi. xxvi. 112 (1908); Koch, Deutsche med. Wochenschr. S. 1029 (1890); S. 209 (1897); Mitth. a. d. kaiserl. Gesundheitsamte, Bd. ii. (1884); von Pirquct, Deutsch. med. Wochenschr. S. 865 (1907); Report, with Appendices, of the Royal Commission on Tuberculosis (London, 1895); Reports, Royal Commission on Tuberculosis (London, 1904-1907); Wolff-Eisner, The Ophthalmic and Cutaneous Diagnosis of Tuberculosis (Eng. trans., New York, 1908); Wright, Lancet, ii. 1598, 1674 (1905). Typhoid Fever: Chantemesse, in Charcot's Traite de medecine, t. i. (1891); Chantemesse and Widal, "Etude exper. s. I'exaltation, I'immuns. et 1. therap. d. I'infection typhique, " Ann.de I'inst. Pasteur, t. vi. (1892); Davies and Walker Hall, Proc. Roy. Soc. Med. vol. i. (London, 1908), (Epidem. Section), p. 175; Durham, "On a Special Action of the Serum of highly immunized Animals, " Journ. Path, and Bact. vol. iv. (1896-1897); Easton, Boston Med. and Surg. Journ. cliff. 195 (1905); Forster, Miinch. med. Wochenschr. S. i (1908); Frosch, Klin. Jahrb. xix. 537 (Jena, 1908); Max Gruber, " Z. Theorie d. Agglutination, " Miinch. med. Wochenschr. (18^9); Griinbaum, Lancet, vol. ii. (1896); Kayser, Arb. a. d. kaiserl. Gesitndheitsamte, Bd. 24, S.S. 173, 176 (Berlin, 1906); Bd. 25, S. 223 (1907); Ledingham and Ledinghani, Brit. Med. Journ. i. 15 (London, 1908); Sanarelli, " Etudes s. 1. Fievre typhoide experiment ale, " Ann. de I'inst. Pasteur, t. vi. (1892), and t. viii. (1894); Thomson and Ledingham, sSth Annual Report, Local Government Board, p. 260 (London, 1909); Wright and Semple, British Med. Journ. (1897), i. 256; Variola: Calkins, Journ. Med. Research (1904), xi. 136; Councilman, Magrath and Brinckerhoff, Journ. Med. Research (1903), ix. 372, (1904), xi. 12; Guarnieri, Arch, per le sci. med. (1892) xxvi. 403; Centralbl. f. Bact. u. Parasitenk., Bd. xvi. (1894), S. 299. Weil's Disease: Weil, "Ueb.eineeigenthiiml. m. Milztumor, Ikterus . . . akute Infectionskrankheit, " Deutsche Arch. f. klin. Med. (1886), Bd. xxxix. Yellow Fever: Beauperthuy, Travaux scientifiques (Bordeaux, 1891); Boyce, Yellow Fever Prophylaxisin New Orleans (1905; being Memoir XIX. Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, London, 1906); Health Progress and Administration in the West Indies (London, 1910); Sanarelli, " Etiol. et Path. d. 1. Fievre jaune, " and other papers in Ann. de I'inst. Pasteur, (1897) t. xi., and (1898) t. xii.; Durham and Myeers, " Interim Report on Yellow Fever, " Brit. Med. Journ. (1901), i. 450. (G. S. W.)
PARASITISM, in biology, the condition of an organism which obtains its nourishment wholly or partially from the body of another living organism, and which usually brings about extensive modifications in both guest and host, a phenomenon widespread amongst animals and plants. The term has been appropriated by biologists as a metaphor from the Greek (see Parasite). The lives of organisms are so closely intermeshed that if dependence on other organisms for food be the criterion of parasitism it is doubtful if any escape the taint. Green plants, it is true, build up their food from the inorganic elements of the air and the soil, and are farthest removed from the suspicion of dependence; but most, if not all, thrive only by the aid of living microbes either actually attached to their roots or swarming in the nutrient soil. Saprophytes, organisms that live on organic matter, are merely parasites of the dead, whilst all animals derive their nourishment from the bodies of plants, either directly or indirectly through one or more sets of other animals. It is plain, therefore, that if parasitism is to be employed as a scientific term it must connote something more than mere dependence on another living organism for nutrition. The necessary additional conceptions are two: the bodies of
