Teutonic peoples were distinguished from the Celts. From the time of Caesar onwards the former were known to the Romans as “Germani,” a name of uncertain but probably Gaulish origin. It is said to have been first applied to certain Belgic tribes in the basin of the Meuse, who may formerly have come from beyond the Rhine.
At the beginning of our era the Teutonic peoples stretched from the Rhine to the Vistula. Before Caesar’s arrival in Gaul they had advanced beyond the former river, but their further progress in this direction was checked by his campaigns, and, though both banks of the river were occupied by Teutonic tribes throughout the greater part of its course, most of these remained in definite subjection to the Romans. The easternmost Teutonic tribe was probably that of the Goths, in the basin of the Vistula, while the farthest to the south were the Marcomanni and Quadi, in Bohemia and Moravia. These latter districts, however, had been conquered from the Boii, a Celtic people, shortly before the beginning of our era. Towards both the south and west the Teutonic peoples seem to have been pressing the Celts for some considerable time, since we are told that the Helvetii had formerly extended as far as the Main, while another important Celtic tribe, the Volcae Tectosages, had occupied a still more remote position, which it is impossible now to identify. How far the Teutonic peoples extended northwards at this time cannot be determined with certainty, but it is clear that they occupied at least a considerable part of the Scandinavian peninsula.
It has already been mentioned that the Teutonic peoples of this period seem to have been fully conscious of their common origin. What exactly the grouping into Inguaeones, Hermiones and Istaeuones was based upon can only be conjectured, though probably its origin is to be sought rather in religion than in political union. The name of the Hermiones, who are defined as “central” or “interior” peoples, is probably connected with that of the Irminsul, the sacred pillar of the Old Saxons. The Inguaeones again are defined as being “next to the ocean”; but the name can be traced only in Denmark and Sweden, where we find the eponymous hero Ing and the god Yngvi (Frey) respectively. It is likely that the name really belonged only to the peoples of the southern Baltic. Very probably there were many tribes which did not regard themselves as belonging to any of these groups. Tacitus himself records a variant form of the genealogy (see above), according to which Mannus had a larger number of sons, who were regarded as the ancestors of the Suebi, Vandilii, Marsi and others (see Suebi, Vandals). In two at least of these cases we hear of sanctuaries which were resorted to by a number of tribes. It is not to be doubted that such religious confederations were favourable to the existence of political unions. Generally speaking, however, each tribe formed a political unit in itself, and the combinations brought together from time to time in the hands of powerful kings were liable to fall to pieces after the first disaster.
For a few years at the beginning of the Christian era the part of Germany which lies west of the Elbe was under Roman government; but after the defeat of Varus (A.D. 9) the Rhine and the Danube formed in general the frontiers of the empire. Roman influence, however, made itself felt both by way of trade and especially by the employment of German soldiers in the auxiliary forces. In the age of national migrations—from the 4th to the 6th century—the territories of the Teutonic peoples were vastly extended, partly by conquest and partly by arrangement with the Romans. These movements began in the east, where we find the Goths ravaging Dacia, Moesia and the coast regions as early as the 3rd century. In the following century the Vandals settled in Pannonia (western Hungary), while the Goths occupied Dacia, which had now been given up by the Romans, and subsequently took possession also of large territories to the south of the lower Danube.
The 5th century was the time of the greatest national movements. In 406–9 the Vandals and other tribes invaded Gaul from the east and subsequently took possession of Spain and north-western Africa. Immediately afterwards the Visigoths invaded Italy and captured Rome; then turning westwards they occupied southern Gaul and Spain. The southern Suebic peoples, the Alamanni and Bavarians, extended their frontiers as far as the Alps probably about the same time. Not much later a considerable portion of northern Gaul fell into the hands of the Franks, and before the middle of the century the eastern part was occupied by the Burgundians. Several of these movements were due, without doubt, to pressure from the Huns, an eastern people who had conquered many Teutonic tribes and established the centre of their power in Hungary. Their empire, however, speedily broke up after the death of their king Attila in 453. The chief events of the latter part of the century were the conquest of the eastern part of Britain by the Angli, the invasion of Italy by the Ostrogoths and the complete subjugation of northern Gaul by the Franks. By this time, with the exception of Brittany and the southern part of the Balkan peninsula, practically the whole of southern and western Europe was under Teutonic government.
It is customary to attribute this great expansion partly to the increasing weakness of the Romans and partly to pressure of population in Germany. Both explanations may contain a certain amount of truth; but there is no doubt that the military strength of the Teutonic nations was far more formidable now than it had been in the time of the early empire. Not only is it clear, both from literary and archaeological evidence, that they were better armed (see below), but also their power was much more concentrated. Thus during the 1st century we hear of about a dozen different tribes in and around the lower part of the basin of the Rhine. In later times, with one or two possible exceptions, these were all included under the general term Franci, and by the end of the 5th century all had become subject to one king. Similar processes can be traced elsewhere, e.g. among the Alamanni and in the northern kingdoms. Their effect, of course, must have been to provide the kings with greater wealth and with larger permanent bodies of armed men. The motive force towards extension of territories was supplied by military ambition; especially we have to take account of the growth of a warlike spirit in the North, which was constantly driving young warriors to seek their fortunes in the service of continental princes. Where the movement was really of a migratory character it may generally be ascribed to external pressure, in particular from the Huns and the Avars.
The first half of the 6th century saw the subjugation of the Burgundian and Visigothic portions of Gaul by the Franks and the recovery of Africa by the Romans. This latter event was soon followed by the overthrow of the Ostrogothic kingdom; but not many years later Italy was again invaded by the Langobardi (Lombards), the last of the great Teutonic migrations. By this time the extension of Teutonic dominion towards the south and west had brought about its natural sequel in the occupation of the old Teutonic lands in eastern Germany, including even the basin of the Elbe, by Slavonic peoples. Before the end of the century Bohemia also and Lower Austria, together with the whole of the basins of the Drave and the Save, had become Slavonic countries.
The story of the succeeding centuries may briefly be described as in general a process of return to the ethnographical conditions which prevailed before the migration period. The Franks and the Langobardi remained in Gaul and Italy, but they gradually became denationalized and absorbed in the native populations, while in Spain Teutonic nationality came to an end with the overthrow of the Visigothic kingdom by the Moors, if not before. Yet throughout the west and south-west the Teutonic frontier remained from fifty to two hundred miles in advance of its position in Roman times. In south-eastern Europe also the Teutonic elements were swallowed up by the native and Slavonic populations, though a small remnant lingered in the Crimea until probably the 17th century. On the other hand the political consolidation of the various continental Teutonic peoples (apart from the Danes) in the 8th century led to the gradual recovery of eastern Germany together with Lower Austria and the greater part of Styria and Carinthia, though
