Finance. Holland, it is true, was not directly involved in the war, nevertheless, the four years' mobilization, the equipment of army and navy, the provision of daily necessaries and the care of refugees during the war, as well as the measures on behalf of the demobilized and the unemployed and those required to meet the housing short- age and the rise of salaries after the war, caused such heavy expendi- ture that the Dutch finances became greatly over-burdened. The " War " expenses alone amounted to 165,000,000, of which a portion was at once met by taxation. The national debt showed an increase from 96,355,000 in 1913 to 216,604,000 in 1921; it had thus been more than doubled during the war. For the amortization of the " War " debt special taxation was voted for the formation of a loan fund, whereby it would be possible to pay off this special debt in from 22 to 25 years. From 1915 to 1919 24,107,737 was paid into the loan fund.
The burdens imposed upon the people were therefore very heavy, particularly as the communes, upon which, in Holland, an important share of the administrative task devolves, also had to make heavy disbursements in connexion with the war. The consequence was that the direct taxes of the realm, the provinces and the communes grew from l gs. 5d. per head of the population in 1913 to 5 i6s. 5d. in 1918-9. After then, taxation was noticeably increased, while the above figures take no account of the rise in excise, indirect taxes and various tariffs. The direct and the indirect taxes of the realm, and the excises, grew from 2-25 per head of the population in 1913 to 7-9 in 1919. The War Profits Tax produced by Nov. I 1920 50,000,000. The total national revenue, which in 1913 amounted to 18,851,888, increased to 56,187,634 in 1919, and in 1921 was estimated at 46,012,609. The total national expenditure, 19,893,- 955 in 1913 and 74,054,597 in 1919, was estimated for 1921 at 69,273,810.
The ratio of metal to the note issue of the Netherlands Bank remained very favourable throughout the war.
Notes issued
Gold coin and bullion in
Total metal stocks in
1910 ....
1919 ....
June 1921 .
23,296,000 85,264,500 84,415,703
10,904,500 52,906,000 50,488,597
I3-233- 000 53,609,000
51,541,553
According to the latest estimates in 1921 the direct taxation of the realm per capita of the population amounted to (1.40-50, and indirect taxation to fl-35. Local rates amounted to fl-4O, provincial rates to fl-3, total fl. 118-50 (9 173. 6d.). The entire pop. of the Netherlands, therefore, on a total taxable revenue of 2,000,000,000 guilders, pays fl. 830, 000,000 in taxes, i.e. more than 40%.
National Defence. The Dutch army is in the main a Militia army. Of the 60,000 men at disposal 23,000 are annually selected by lot for the first period of service which lasts six months for infantry but longer for cavalry, engineers, etc.
These men, who are liable to service from their 2oth till their 3ist year, form, in the event of mobi'ization, an immediately available army of over 200,000. By calling up older levies and drilling those previously exempted an army of 400,000 men was obtained in the period from 1914-9, while a reserve was also at disposal. These forces constitute a field army of four divisions of three brigades each, the brigade comprising two regiments of infantry, one regiment of artillery and one of cavalry; besides these there are the auxiliaries, the garrisons of the lines, coast guards, frontier guards, etc.
Holland was prepared for mobilization as early as July 28 1914; mobilization started on Aug. I, and by Aug. 4 it was complete. The army is officered by about 2,000 professional commissioned and 5,000 professional non-commissioned officers, supplemented, during mobilization, by about treble that number of reserve officers and non-commissioned men.
The army ; n the Dutch East Indies (Java, etc.) is absolutely inde- pendent of the home forces. It consists of voluntary regulars to the number of about 36000 men, to which, in recent years, a small addition of conscripts has been made.
The navy in 1921 comprised 5 ironclads, 2 armoured cruisers, I protected cruiser, 3 armoured gun-boats, 4 gun-boats, 16 mine layers, 4 mine sweepers, 8 destroyers, 1 1 torpedo boats, 24 submarines and a large number of small coastal vessels. It does service both in the home waters and in the Indies. It is equipped with volunteers, supplemented by an annual contingent of 800 to 1,000 conscripts.
In the 1921 budget, the army figured with almost 6,250,000 and the navy with more than 4,350,000, being about l I is. od. per head of the population.
Labour Legislation. Although Holland began somewhat late and hesitatingly with its labour legislation, that legislation assumed such a development during the ten years following 1910 that in 1921 it occupied a leading place. The first effort to remove social evils by legislation dates from 1873, in which year the employment of children under 12 years of age was prohibited. But a parliamentary enquiry in 1887 showed that the Act had not had much effect. Investigations led to the Act of 1889, which was repeatedly extended till, in 1919, a highly important change was achieved by an Act applicable to factories and workshops, bakeries, shops, offices, pharmacies, coffee houses, hotels and hospitals (but not to agricul-
ture, horticulture, arboriculture, mining or household work) which introduced, in principle, the 8-hour day and the 45-hour week. Holland thus took the leading place and even went beyond the requirements of the Washington Conference of 1919: except in the occupations mentioned above, these regulations have been gradually introduced. In bakeries, all work is prohibited on Sunday and from 8 P.M. till 6 A.M. As a general rule, work must cease on Saturday at I P.M. All work is forbidden for children under 14 years of age, and in general, Sunday employment and night work for persons between 14 and 18 years.
In cases prejudicial to health, morals or life, any particular work may be forbidden by royal decree to young persons and women. Women are not permitted to work for at least two weeks before and six weeks after childbirth.
Special Acts provide for safety in factories (1895), the prohibition of white phosphor in match works (1901), labour in caissons (1905), stone cutting (1911) and harbour work (1914).
Workmen's Insurance. Workmen's insurance in Holland began with the Accident Act of 1901. This Act was applicable only to factories and workshops with power machinery, but was extended to all cases in 1919 Only agriculture, horticulture, arboriculture, sea fisheries and navigation were excepted. For the last, a temporary regulation was adopted in 1919 as continuation of a regulation made in 1915 for war accidents at sea. The accident premiums are paid by the employers. Mutual accident insurance in agriculture and arboriculture has existed since 1909.
In 1913 a compulsory sickness and old age insurance bill was passed, and regulations immediately came into force whereby work- men 70 years old at that date were granted a pension of two francs per week (married couples together three francs) ; in 1919 these sums were increased to three francs and five francs and the age limit was lowered to 65. The Act itself, however, was not promulgated o\ying to the continued conflict between the advocates of State pensions (Liberals, Radicals and Socialists) and the advocates of compulsory old-age insurance with payment of premium by the insured (the clerical parties). This conflict ended in the retention of compulsory insurance with payment of the entire premium by the employer. The age limit is 65 years. Children under 14 years may receive an orphan dole and widows absolutely invalided or not less than 60 years old receive an annuity. For persons not performing hired service but whose economic position is similar to that of workmen, opportunity was given to insure voluntarily against old age, the State undertaking the costs of administration.
Council of Labour. In 1919 a High Council of Labour was appointed composed, partly, of representatives of the employers and the employed, partly of officials, and partly of persons who had made a special study of social and economic questions or of social legislation. This body, of which the Labour Minister is president, was to advise the various departments concerning Labour affairs.
Housing. Owing to circumstances due to the war, the housing problem in the Netherlands also became extremely pressing. Before the war, thanks to the housing law of 1901, the slum dwellings in the great centres of population were being cleared away and the system of cash advances to building societies introduced by this law rendered possible the construction on a large scale of houses for the working and lower middle classes.
The stagnation in building during the years of war owing to a shortage of labour caused by the long duration of the mobilization, and the want of materials, changed the favourable situation existing before the hostilities into one of great need. Legislative measures proved necessary to prevent as far as possible the inflation of house rents, and Acts were passed in 1917, I9_l8, 1920 and 1921 ; also the construction of houses by private individuals was encouraged as much as possible by the State by means of loans and premiums. The shortage of houses was greatest and reckoned at 57,550 at the end of 1919, and it was estimated that this number had been reduced to 52,500 on Jan. I 1921.
Public Health. State supervision of public health was provided for in the Health Act of 1919. The Government is advised by the Health Council. There are health committees in all communes of more than 18,000 souls and in unions of smaller communes aggre- gating more than 40,000 souls.
Protection of Children. The Conipulsory Education Act gave authority to the communes to provide food and clothing for needy children. In various large towns the authorities proceeded to the in- stallation of school baths, and physicians and nurses were appointed ; dental treatment was also arranged for.
Poor Relief. The Act of April 27 1912 achieved with regard to Poor Relief an urgently necessary cooperation by instituting joint Poor Councils in which the various public and private charitable institutions are represented. One general Poor Commission, estab- lished in The Hague, advises both the Government and the Poor Councils. The principle of the Poor Relief is that precedence is taken by Church or other special institutions and that only after- wards civil relief, exercised by the community, comes into action.
The Church and special institutions may be subsidised by the authorities. The number of charitable institutions amounted in 1917 to 6,880, nearly 60% of which belonged to the churches. In 1917 about 3,500,000 were spent for charitable purposes.
Labour Movements. The comparatively slight importance of the
