whereby for a provisional period of three years special conditions
were to obtain both as to method of selection and rates of pay,
but subsequent conditions were to be the same for both sexes.
No barriers now exist excluding women from any profession, except the army and navy, and ministry of the Church of Eng- land or the Roman Catholic Church. In Feb. 1920 Convoca- tion passed a resolution against giving permission, even to accredited women " to preach and pray in congregations com- posed of women and children," but in July the Lambeth Con- ference recommended the admission of women to the diaconate and a wider use of their ministry in non-liturgical services. Permission was, however, refused to Miss Maude Royden to preach in a London church at a special Good Friday service in March 1921. The General Assembly of the English Presbyte- rian Church resolved in May 1921, by 156 votes to 124, to admit women as elders and deacons.
In practically all other directions the field lies open to women. Their achievements during the war proved that they but needed opportunity. The remaining struggle was not for permission to work but for adequate remuneration. " Equal pay for equal work " became their rallying cry. It was inscribed upon the banners of an imposing procession, demanding equality in the Civil Service, which paraded London on April 28 1920; it formed the basis of the protest of women teachers to the Minister of Education (May 1920) and of their demonstration in Trafalgar Square (Nov. 1920) against the proportion (four-fifths) of male salaries allowed them under the Burnham scale. In the indus- trial world the women's claim to an equal bonus prompted the successful strike of tramway and omnibus workers in London in Aug. 1918. Not inappropriately the National Union of Women Suffrage Societies renamed itself the National Union of Societies for Equal Citizenship.
The problem was no longer political, or even social; it was eco- nomic. The removal of the few remaining disabilities of women, such as their inferior share in the guardianship and control of their children, depends in the last resort upon the securing for them, whether in marriage or out of it, of economic independence. Other- wise freedom to control those whom she cannot maintain, or the right to leave a husband when she is incapable of maintaining her- self, are illusory rights of little value to a woman. When the last traces of the legal theory that husband and wife are one person, and that the woman, as such, must be under the tutelage or guardian- ship of parent or husband, have been obliterated, there will still remain need for legislation securing to a woman freedom to work outside her home, or, as an alternative, wages for work within it going beyond bed and board, as well as a fair share of joint earnings. j Not till this is accomplished will the theory of equal citizenship have been translated into fact. (J. E. C.*)
(2) UNITED STATES. The increase in interest in professional work for women in the United States, during the World War, was evidenced by the number of bureaux and associations for the exchange of information in this field. A book published in 1920 by the director of the Intercollegiate Vocational Guidance Association told the story of over 30 groups of professional occupations where women were already at work. An examination of the many branches under the main groups indicated that there was practically no profession women had not entered. The Bureau of Vocational Information published intensive studies of the leading professions, and the National Social Workers' Ex- change was organized to place trained workers in professional positions throughout the country. During the World War in- creased opportunities came to women, both in the accustomed professions and also in new lines of endeavour. It is probably true, however, that most of the professional work, which was considered " new " to women, was " new " only in the sense that it was unknown to the general public. In the case of employment managers, personnel and welfare workers, for instance, women had been employed for some time, but the war increased the number and brought their work vividly before the public.
Industry. Many of the women taking executive positions in industry had been forewomen and were promoted in the war emer- ' gency. In one investigation of 250 plants, 146 employed women executives other than forewomen. The more important positions included those of designers, office or factory managers, employment managers, welfare directors, nurses and occasionally doctors, matrons, lunchroom managers, production supervisors, depart-
ment heads, statisticians and saleswomen on the road. Later there developed a tendency to employ college women in these positions, and by 1920 at least three universities and a half-dozen schools had offered special training courses. One school alone graduated over 200 women whose salaries ranged from $2,000 to $5,000 a year.
Medicine. Perhaps the most important demand among the already recognized professions was for an increased number of nurses and doctors. In 1920 there were registered about 40,000 nurses in private practice and about 10,000 in public health work. It was in the latter field where every effort was being made to in- crease the number to 50,000. The number of women physicians at the same time was about 6,000, and practically all of the American medical schools were open to women, although not always on quite the same terms as for men. Women were not only practising physi- cians but they also held important positions in surgery, dentistry, laboratory research, and on the staffs of hospitals and medical schools. In addition to the " regular " physician it was estimated that there were about seven or eight thousand women practising osteopathy.
Law. Since 1869, when the first woman was admitted to the bar in Illinois, the profession of law has claimed an increasing number of women. By 1921 every state in the Union except Delaware had admitted both sexes, and at least 1, 600 women were practising in various branches of both civil and criminal law. Out of 129 law schools only 27 then refused admittance to woman students, but among those refusing were two of the leading schools, Harvard and Columbia. In many cases women who were graduate lawyers specialized in one phase of work such as corporation law, patent law, legal research or court work: Others did not enter the practice of law but engaged in work where their legal training became valuable background. Among the important Government positions held by women lawyers in 1921 were those of the U. S. probatfe attorney, judge of the juvenile court in the District of Columbia, city magistrate in New York City, deputy collector of customs, and county attorneys, treasurers, clerks, probate judges and justices of the peace in various states. Two states have had women assistant attorneys-general, and probably the most important position held by a legally trained woman was that of assistant attorney-general of the United States.
Education. One of the few professions given over very largely to women was that of teaching. Women almost completely filled the ranks in the elementary public schools, and very nearly so in the higher grades. Men predominated in the colleges and universi- ties, but women held many important positions as faculty members and occasionally as presidents of women's colleges. Many of the higher educational institutions employed women deans to supervise and advise the women students. Salaries for these positions were seldom above $3,000 or $4,000, but occasionally the dean of women held the rank of full professor and received a corresponding salary. Many smaller cities employed women as superintendents of schools, but in 1921 only one or two of the larger cities had engaged women in this position. An increasing number of women were employed in private schools either as teachers or principals, and often private schools were owned and managed by women. Since 1900 particular problems in education have been emphasized and women specialists developed in such fields as manual training, recreation, kindergarten, physical education, vocational training, and the education of the blind, feeble-minded or subnormal.
Immediately following the World War an acute shortage of teachers occurred, due to the large numbers drawn off into better^ paid positions. This exodus amounted almost to an " invisible strike " for higher wages and became so serious that schools in many places either closed entirely or were open for only half-day sessions. A movement was started to establish a minimum salary of $1,500 a year in order again to attract women to the profession, but the wave of economy which spread over the legislative bodies in 1921 greatly impeded the efforts to raise the standard of teaching and to secure better educational facilities.
Social Work. Since 1900 a remarkable increase occurred in the numbers of women engaged in various forms of social service. Women have of course been the traditional bearers of charity and have long been connected with correctional work. But this was largely in the form of volunteer service. With the greater develop- ment of paid service, and the desire to treat causes rather than effects, there developed a wide field of work and a large number of workers. Social service was classified by the National Social Workers' Ex- change as follows : (i) Social case work, dealing with individuals, as church visiting, family case work, medical social service, probation, protective and prison work, public health nursing and visiting, school visiting, and employment exchange work, both public and private (2) Social group work, including community-centre work, Ameri- canization boys' and girls' club work, playground and recreation work. (3) Social reform work dealing with people as a mass as housing reform legislation, anti-tuberculosis work, and the promo- tion of child hygiene. (4) Social research, comprising special in- vestigations, research and statistical work including surveys and exhibits. No fewer than 14 schools for the training of social workers had been established by 1921 and the demand for women with proper training usually exceeded the supply.
Civil Service. -Extensive opportunities for women are to be found in civil service positions offered by city, state, and Federal
