that some at least of them would be recognized as independent nations, under such mandatories as they were willing to accept. The principal claimants for these mandates were France and Great Britain, who in May 1916 had come to an understanding about their future spheres of influence (the Sykes-Picot agreement), on the basis that the French sphere should include Cilicia, Southern Armenia and Syria (with autonomy under French protection for Damascus, Aleppo, 'Urfa, Deir and Mosul); that Palestine should be an international territory; and that Haifa and Mesopotamia should be in the British sphere. But Greece claimed the whole of Turkish Thrace, Smyrna (which she occupied with the approval of the Supreme Council in May 1919) and the Aegean Is.; while Italy claimed the Dodecanese (of which she had retained possession at the end of the Libyan war in 1912) and a sphere of influence on the adjacent main- land. There were difficulties connected with all these claims. The most notorious conflict of interests was that between France and the Hejaz (over the Arab districts of Syria), which came to a head in March 1920 with the proclamation by a " Syrian National Congress " of an independent Syria (to include the Lebanon, Palestine and Mesopotamia) and of Faisal, the heir apparent of the Hejaz, as the king of this state; but there were also doubts as to the wisdom of allowing Greece to assume responsibility for Smyrna, and as to the possibility of reconciling the French and Italian claims with Mr. Wilson's promise to respect the political unity of the Turkish race. The future of Constantinople was long in doubt. At last on Feb. 16 1920 the Conference of London announced that it would remain the Turkish capital; but, a month later, the Allies informed the Turkish Nationalists that this concession was conditional on their good behaviour, and Constantinople was temporarily occupied by Allied troops under the command of Gen. Milne. On April 24 the Conference of San Remo gave mandates to France for Syria, Cilicia and the Lebanon; to Great Britain for Palestine and Mesopotamia; a mandate for Armenia was declined first by the League of Nations (April 27) and afterwards by the United States Senate (May 27). At last on May n the draft treaty was handed to the Turkish delegates at Sevres. Its terms produced considerable excitement among the Nationalists, and it was necessary for the Allies to call upon the Greeks to make armed demonstrations both in Asia Minor and in Thrace. But at the Conference of Spa (July) the last touches were put to the treaty and on Aug. 10 it was duly signed by the Turkish delegates.
Under the treaty Constantinople is left to the Sultan, with the proviso that it may be forfeited if Turkey violates the terms of settlement, especially those by which she guarantees the rights of minorities in her territory. In accordance with the Fourteen Points the Straits are neutralized and placed under the control of an international commission. Smyrna, with about half its vilayet, is left under Turkish sovereignty, but this sovereignty will be exercised by the Greek Government, and Smyrna may be incorporated in the Greek customs area. There is to be a local legislature, which may, if it so desires, petition the League of Nations (within five years) for the incorporation of Smyrna in the Greek kingdom. Greece also receives, in full sovereignty, Thrace outside the zone of the Straits, Imbros, Tenedos, Lemnos, Samothrace, Mytilene, Chios, Samos and Nikaria. But she may not fortify the first five of these islands (owing to their proximity to the Straits); and she engages to sign a minorities treaty. Armenia is declared a free and independent state; the boundary between Turkey and Armenia is to be referred to the arbitration of the President of the United States. Syria, Mesopotamia and Palestine are recognized as independent states; their boundaries will be fixed by the principal Powers, and they are to be ad- ministered by mandatories, on terms formulated by the prin- cipal Powers and submitted to the Council of the League of Nations for approval. The Hejaz is recognized as a free and independent state. Turkey cedes to Italy the islands of Astropalia, Casso, Scarpanto, Rhodes, the Dodecanese and Castel- loryzo. The British protectorate over Egypt and the British annexation of Cyprus are confirmed. The chief feature of the military clauses is the proviso that Turkey may maintain no military forces except the Sultan's bodyguard, and gendarmes and frontier guards not exceeding 50,000 in number. The Allies waive their claims for reparation. But Turkey is to pay the costs of the armies of occupation ;ince the Armistice of Oct. 30 1918, and to compensate civilian nationals of the Allies for loss or damage suffered in the war through the action or negligence of the Turkish authorities.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. All the treaties have been published by the Sta- tionery Office. Supplementary documents are printed in the His- tory of the Peace Conference, vols. i.-iii., ed. H. W. V. Temperley (i92O-|-i), which also comments exhaustively on the German treaty, and gives an account of proceedings up to June 28 1919. Three more volumes are in preparation ; these will deal with the remaining treaties. A few more documents will be found in the American Journal of International Law (and supplements) for 1919 and 1920. The German Comments^ on the Conditions of Peace of May 29 1919 is published (in English) by the Amer. Assoc. for International Conciliation (Oct. 1919); the Reply of the Allied and Associated Powers, of June 16 1919, is published by the Stationery Office: Cmd. 258 (1919). For the question of Fiume see documents published by “Adriaticus”, in La Question Adriatique (1920), and the Stationery Office paper: Correspondence relating to the Adriatic Question, Cmd. 586 (1920). Of books describing or criticizing the Conference the following are useful: Sir M. Hankey, " Diplomacy by Conference " (Proc. Brit. Inst. of International Affairs, 1921); H. Wilson Harris, The Peace in the Making (1920); T. M. Keynes, Economic Consequences of the Peace (1919); C. H. Thompson, The Peace Conference Day by Day (1920). Of capital importance is the series of articles by M. Andre Tardieu in L’lllustration for 1920, reprinted in his book La Paix (1921). See also R. Lansing, The Peace Negotiations (1921) and The Big Four and Others (1921). (H. W. C. D.)
PEARCE, CHARLES SPRAGUE (1851–1914), American
painter (see 21.24), died in Paris, France, May 18 1914.
PEARS, SIR EDWIN (1835–1919), British lawyer and man of letters, was born at York March 18 1835, and educated privately and at the London University where he took first-class honours in Roman law and jurisprudence. He was called to the bar at Middle Temple in 1870 and for a time was private secretary to Frederick Temple, afterwards archbishop of Canterbury, and
secretary to various associations connected with social work in
London. In 1873 he settled in Constantinople, practising in the
consular courts and becoming president of the European bar
there. He acquired in this way an intimate knowledge of the
East which he turned to account in 1876 when, as correspondent
of The Daily News, he sent letters home describing Moslem
atrocities in Bulgaria which aroused popular demonstrations in
England led by W. E. Gladstone (see 12.71). He was knighted
in 1909. His works include The Fall of Constantinople, a Story of the Fourth Crusade (1885) ; The Destruction of the Greek Empire
(1903) and, his most distinguished book, Turkey and its People
(1911) in which he displayed his expert knowledge of Byzantine
Constantinople. He died Nov. 27 1919 at Malta as the result
of an accident on his journey home from Constantinople.
PEARSE, PATRICK HENRY (1870–1916), Irish educationist, author, and Sinn Fein leader, was born in Dublin on Nov. 10 1879. His father was an Englishman, a sculptor and worker in stone, who was himself the author of a pamphlet on England's Duty to Ireland as it appears to an Englishman. It is likely that it was from his father Pearse derived his Icrve of liberty; and from his mother, whose people came from county Meath, he drank in memories of ’98 and of the Fenians. He was educated at the Christian Brothers schools and graduated before he was 24 at the Royal University of Ireland as a B.A. and B.L. His first serious work was when he became editor of the Claidheamh Soluis, the weekly organ of the Gaelic League. When engaged on this work he made a tour through Belgium to study bilingual methods, and edited several Fiona tales from Irish manuscripts. He was a hard worker on the Coisde Gnotha or Executive of the League, and secretary to its publication committee. He was more interested in education than in any other subject, and it is remarkable that he was in favour of accepting Mr. Birrell's Irish Council bill (see 14.788) in 1907, because it gave the Irish control over their own education. In this attitude he stood almost alone. His first book was a slender volume containing Three Lectures on
