Six months later, when news of the fall of Peking to Li Tzŭ-ch'êng [q. v.] reached Mukden, Fan Wên-ch'êng [q. v.] pointed out to Dorgon the advantages of seizing this opportunity to advance on China. Dorgon led a large army westward, and with the help of Wu San-kuei [q. v.] succeeded in driving back the bandits and pacifying the northern provinces. Later in the year (1644) Fu-lin was escorted to Peking and on October 30 was proclaimed Emperor of China. But his authority was for several years only nominal; Dorgon became virtual dictator, and to him may be credited most of the early Ch'ing policies and the consolidation of the empire.
But Dorgon antagonized many princes and high officials who were subject to his power. In 1651, after his death, the control of the government passed to Fu-lin and to those opposed to Dorgon. Among those who were supporting Fu-lin were Jirgalang, Oboi [q. v.], and Wu Liang-fu 吳良輔 (d. 1661), the last-mentioned being a leading eunuch. Dorgon was posthumously disgraced and several of his followers were put to death. But by this time the foundation of the new empire was laid; the Mongols vowed allegiance; the Ming Prince of Kuei (see under Chu Yu-lang), leader of Chinese opposition, was held back in the remote southwest; the Fifth Dalai Lama (see under Galdan), representing Tibet, came in person to Peking in 1652 to recognize the suzerainty of the new empire; and in 1653 the king of the Loochoo Islands began paying tribute (see under Wang Chi). By 1659 the Prince of Kuei was driven into Burma and the conquest of China was almost complete.
During the early part of Fu-lin's reign, relations with Western countries were conducted as in the late Ming period. The Portuguese were allowed to monopolize foreign trade at Macao, but were denied direct access to Canton, until 1653, when that city was opened to them at the suggestion of Shang K'o-hsi [q. v.]. In 1655 a Dutch Embassy came to Peking, performed the kowtow ceremonies before Fu-lin, and was granted the right to trade in China once in eight years. More serious problems arose with the Russians who had been raiding the Amur region since 1649 (see under Bahai and Šarhûda). In 1658 the Russians were defeated by Minggadari [q. v.] and for several years their plundering activities ceased. A Russian trade mission reached Peking in 1655, but was not received by Fu-lin because the envoys refused to perform the kowtow.
Fu-lin was a studious and conscientious young emperor. In 1651, when he took over the government, he found himself unprepared in the Chinese language and was consequently unable to understand the memorials submitted to him for action. Yet he studied the language with determination and perseverance so that in a few years he could read, write, grade examination papers, and comment on official reports. He even developed an interest in Chinese novels, the drama, and Zen (Ch'an 禪) Buddhistic literature. About the year 1659, or 1660, he cited passages from Chin Jên-jui's [q. v.] edition of the drama, Hsi-hsiang chi, which had been published in 1656. It is clear, therefore, that he was interested in current literature. His assertion that Chin Jên-jui, as a commentator of novels, was "highly talented but with unconventional ideas" (才高而見僻) shows how well he understood Chin's writings. Such achievements were not inconsequential in one so busily occupied.
Fu-lin was religiously inclined. From 1651 to 1657 he came into close contact with the Jesuit missionary, Father Adam Schall (see under Yang Kuang-hsien). Schall had cured Fu-lin's mother of an illness and was respected by her as a "foster father". Hence Fu-lin called him "mafa", meaning "grandpa". He often listened to the good advice of the aged missionary, not only on questions of religion or morality, but also on affairs of state. Schall was frequently summoned to the palace, and Fu-lin in turn sometimes visited the church, Nan-t'ang 南堂, especially in 1656 and 1657. But after 1657 the emperor turned to Ch'an Buddhism, and the missionary's efforts to convert him failed.
Fu-lin's interest in Buddhism was possibly promoted by the eunuchs who themselves were superstitious and were not loathe to see him absorbed in other than state affairs. Prior to this, during the regency of Dorgon, eunuchs exercised very little influence in the Palace, but the part which the eunuch, Wu Liang-fu, took in 1651 in ejecting Dorgon's faction gained for them some measure of favor. Gradually the emperor relied more and more on the eunuchs to help him in conducting affairs inside the Palace as well as matters of state. In July 1653 Fu-lin formally established thirteen offices in the Palace controlled by eunuchs, some of which were in charge of issuing edicts and appointing officials. Although the Emperor warned the eunuchs to mend their ways (1655), and once (1658) reprimanded Wu Liang-fu and other
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