was transferred to Kwangtung, but died on the way.
The Ch'ing government gave most of the credit for the victory over the Pai-lien-chiao rebels to the Manchu generals, Ê-lê-têng-pao, Tê-lêng-t'ai, Lê-pao and Ming-liang, and to the Manchu soldiers from Kirin and Heilungkiang under their command. But a close study of the documents of the war shows that the Manchu soldiers did little of the fighting, the brunt of the resistance being borne by the farmers who, after their farms were devastated, were virtually compelled to join the army as volunteers in order to escape starvation. These farmer-soldiers, or hsiang-yung 鄉勇, as they were called, endured much and received few rewards—their defeats were ignored and their victories were reported as those of Manchu troops. Nevertheless, in 1799 reforms were initiated; the hsiang-yung were accorded better treatment and their commanders were recognized. It was they who finally put an end to the war. Among their commanders may be mentioned Lo Ssŭ-chü 羅思舉 (T. 天鵬, 1764–1840, posthumous name 壯勇), a native of Tung-hsiang, Szechwan, who was in the war from the beginning and who rose to the rank of a colonel in 1804, one year before the war ended. Later he served as provincial commander-in-chief of Kweichow (1821), of Yunnan (1821–25), and of Hupeh (1825–40). For collaborating with Hsi-ên (see under Ying-ho) in stabilizing the revolt of the Yao 猺 aborigines in Hunan in 1832, he was given a minor hereditary rank. Another general, Liu Ch'ing 劉清 (T. 天一, H. 松齋, 1742–1827), a native of Kuang-shun, Kweichow, began his career as a civil official and served as magistrate in Szechwan when the war started in 1796. He commanded a group of volunteers and rose to be provincial judge of Szechwan in 1802. While serving as salt commissioner of Shantung (1812–16), he took part in stabilizing the T'ien-li chiao rebellion (1813, see under Na-yen-ch'êng). Then he served as a brigade-general in Shantung from 1816 to 1822 when he retired.
One factor contributing to the success of the war against the Pai-lien-chiao rebels was the strategy known as chien-pi ch'ing-yeh 堅璧清野, or "strengthening the walls and clearing the countryside". This involved concentrating people and food in fortified towns and villages and stripping the countryside of everything, in order that the rebels might obtain neither provisions nor recruits. The plan was originally suggested by Kung Ching-han 龔景瀚 (T. 惟廣, H. 海峯, 1747–1803, Jan. 19) of Foochow, a chin-shih of 1771 who served as magistrate (later a prefect) in Shensi, and as secretary to Governor-general I-mien (see under Ê-lê-têng-pao) from 1796 to 1799. His long article on the above-mentioned strategy was widely read before the plan was adopted by Lê-pao after 1799.
[1/350/1a; 2/29/1a; 3/33/4a; 3/186/42a; 3/314/16a; 3/318/19a; 3/321/45a; 3/324/39a; Wei Yüan [q. v.], Shêng-wu chi; 四川通志 Szechwan t'ung-chih (1815), chüan 83; Kung Ching-han, 澹靜齋全集 Tan-ching chai ch'üan-chi.]
LI Ch'ang-kêng 李長庚 (T. 超人, 西巖), May 1, 1750–1808, Jan. 12, naval commander and first Earl Chuang-lieh (壯烈伯), was a native of T'ung-an, Fukien. A military chin-shih of 1771, he was commissioned a junior Imperial Bodyguard. In 1776 he was appointed captain in command of a company stationed at Ch'ü-chou, Chekiang, and was promoted several times in the following eleven years. In 1787 he was made acting brigade general in command of the naval forces on Hai-t'an Island, Fukien, but was cashiered in 1788 for failure to, apprehend certain pirates. Nevertheless, he was allowed to redeem himself by assisting the authorities at his own expense. He used his private means to finance a small fleet which he led against the pirates. Though in this way he expended a large part of the family property, he succeeded in regaining the confidence of the authorities. Late in 1789 he was given by imperial decree the rank of an expectant major in Fukien, receiving appointment in 1794. After gaining several victories over pirates he was promoted in 1797 to be acting colonel in command of the fleet at the Pescadores, and a year later was made brigade-general in command of the naval forces at Ting-hai, Chekiang, He devoted the rest of his life to the extermination of pirates that were harassing the South China coast.
The disturbed conditions in Annam was largely responsible for the piratical excesses that day. In 1787 Juan Kuang-p'ing (see under Sun Shih-i) overthrew the Li Dynasty and in 1789 was recognized by Emperor Kao-tsung as King of Annam. He died in 1792, and his son, Juan Kuang-tsan (see under Sun Shih-i) reigned for ten years more. During these fifteen years (1787–1802), the throne of Annam was sought by Juan Fu-ying (see under Sun Shih-i) who
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