within Napoleon's dominions, and, as the order sided with the pope against the emperor, the latter expelled its monks from all monasteries in the empire, and imprisoned not a few of them. With his fall they revived again, and obtained permission to return to France, whither between 1814 and 1825 they drifted back from most of their places of exile, though 1450 were expelled anew in 1880 under the operation of the Ferry laws. La Trappe itself was repurchased by L Estrange, and became once more the mother house, while there are fifteen other French monasteries of the order, four Belgian, two English (Mount St Bernard, Leicestershire, and Stape Hill, Dorset), two in Ireland, one each in Germany, Savoy, and Algiers, two in Italy, two (Gethsemane in Kentucky and New Melleray in Iowa) in the United States, and one originally settled in Pennsylvania, but now at Tracadie in Nova Scotia. An order of Trappistine nuns was founded by Dom Augustin in 1827, and has nine French houses and one English. The total numbers are computed at 3000 members of both sexes.
The bibliography relating to De Rancé and the Trappists is copious, and the following list is not exhaustive. Savary (Bishop of Séez), Imago R. P. Dom. Arm. Joan, le Bouthillier de Rancé, Abbatis de Trappa, 1701; Maupeou, Vie de M. l'Abbé de la Trappe, Paris, 1702; Marsollier, Vie de I Abbé Bouthillier de Rancé, Paris, 1702; Le Nain (brother of Tillemont), Vie de Le Bouthillier de Rancé, Abbe et Réformateur de la Trappe, Rouen, 1715; Inguimbert, Genuinus Character D. Arm. Joannis Buttilieri Rancæi, Rome, 1718; Charles Butler, "Life of De Rancé," Miscellanies, vol. iii., London, 1817; Dubois, Histoire de l'Abbé De Rancé et de sa Réforme, 2 vols., Paris, 1866; Félibien, Description de la Trappe, Paris, 1672; Helyot and Badiche, Histoire des Ordres Religieux, art. "La Trappe," Paris, 1859; Wetzer and Welte, Kirchenlexicon, art. "Trappisten," Freiburg, 1849. (R. F. L.)
TRAS-OS-MONTES (i.e., "Behind the Mountains") is the north-east frontier province of Portugal, situated on the other side of the Serra de Marao from Oporto. On the W. it is bounded by Entre Minho e Douro, and on the S. by Beira. The area is 4260 square miles, and the population increased from 393,279 in 1878 to 396,676 in 1881. Physically the province is a mountainous plateau, the most elevated in Portugal, and characterized by the picturesqueness and wildness of its scenery. Monte Zinho reaches a height of 7445 feet. Vast tracts are covered with heath; but in certain parts the soil is fertile, and the rich wine growing district on the upper Douro (Alto Douro) is the native country of port. Silk-growing is also carried on; and wheat, rye, hemp, and flax appear among the exports. The province is divided into the two administrative districts of Villa Real and Braganza. Besides the two towns thus named, two only, Chaves and Miranda do Douro, are of any considerable size.
TRAVANCORE, a native state in Madras presidency, India, between 8° 4′ and 10° 22′ N. lat. and between 76° 12′ and 77° 38′ E. long., with an area of 6730 square miles. It is bounded on the N. by the native state of Cochin, on the E. by the British districts of Madura and Tinnevelli, and on the S. and W. by the Indian Ocean. This state is described as one of the most picturesque portions of southern India. Its most marked physical feature is furnished by the Western Gháts, which rise to an elevation of 8000 feet and are clothed with magnificent primeval forest; they throw out spurs towards the coast, along which there is a belt of flat country of about 10 miles in width, covered with an almost unbroken mass of cocoanut and areca palms, which to a great extent constitute the wealth of the country. The whole surface is undulating, and presents a series of hills and valleys traversed from east to west by many rivers, the floods of which, arrested by the peculiar action of the Arabian Sea on the coast, spread themselves out into lagoons or backwaters, connected here and there by artificial canals, and forming an inland line of smooth-water communication for nearly the whole length of the coast. The chief river is the Periyar, which is navigable for 60 miles; other important rivers are the Pambai and its tributary the Achinkoil, the Kallada, and the Western Támbraparni. Iron is abundant. Elephants are numerous, and tigers, leopards, bears, bison, elk, and various kinds of deer abound in the forests. The state possesses some good roads, and, on the whole, internal communication is tolerably complete. Travancore has an abundant rainfall, with every variety of climate and temperature.
In 1881 the population of Travancore was found to number 2,401,158 (males 1,197,134, females 1,204,024), of whom 1,755,610 were Hindus, 146, 909 Mohammedans, and 498,542 Christians. The chief towns are Trivandrum (q.v.), the capital, Aleppi, the commercial centre and chief seaport of the state, and Quilon, another seaport and military headquarters. Among the principal articles which the state produces are rice, cocoa-nut palm, pepper, arecanut, cardamoms, tamarind, coffee, timber, &c. The manufactures comprise cocoa-nut, gingelly, lemon-grass, and laurel oils, jaggery and molasses, salt, arrack, cotton cloths and yarns, pottery, and coir yarn, rope, and matting. Its revenue in 1884-85 was estimated at 640,548. Travancore state is in subsidiary alliance with the British Government, to which it pays a tribute of 80,000 a year. It is one of the few states which have never turned against the British. Under the enlightened rule of the late maharajah the country made great progress, and it now stands very high among native states. It is free from debt, and has a surplus of revenue over expenditure. The sovereignty as well as the inheritance of property passes in the female line.
TRAWLING.See Fisheries.
TREASON.The law which punishes treason is a necessary consequence of the idea of a state, and is essential to the existence of the state. Most, if not all, nations have accordingly, at an early period of their history, made provision by legislation or otherwise for the punishment of those offences against public order which consist in more or less direct attacks upon the safety of the state or its chief. The principle is universal; it is the application of the principle which leads to differences of opinion. What would have been a capital crime at Rome under Tiberius may be no offence at all in England. It is to the advantage of both the state and the citizen that what is treason and what is not should be clearly defined, so that as little as possible discretionary power, apt to be strained in times of popular excitement, should be left to the judicial or executive authorities. The importance of this was seen by Montesquieu. Vagueness in the crime of treason, says he, is sufficient to make the government degenerate into despotism.[1] At the same time, it may be observed that despotic Governments have not always left the crime undefined. The object of Henry VIII., for instance, was rather to define it as closely as possible by making certain acts treason which would not have been so without such definition. In both ancient and modern history treason has generally been a crime prosecuted by exceptional procedure, and visited with afflictive as distinguished from simple punishments (to use the terminology of Bentham).
In Roman law the offences originally falling under the head of treason were almost exclusively those committed in military service, such as in England would be dealt with under the Army Act. The very name perduellio, the name of the crime in the older Roman law, is a proof of this. Perduelles were, strictly, public enemies who bore arms against the state; and traitors were regarded as having no more rights than public enemies. The Twelve Tables made it punishable with death to communicate with the enemy or to betray a citizen to the enemy. Other kinds of perduellio were punished by interdiction of fire and water. The crime was tried before a special tribunal, the duumviri perduellionis, perhaps the earliest permanent criminal court existing at Rome. At a later period the
- ↑ Esprit des Lois, bk. xii. c. 7.
