the members, which was a necessary feature of the system, evolved a class of local dictators, or “rings,” which were irresponsible as well as tyrannical; and the business of the country was very seriously threatened all through the years 1886 and 1887.
333. Law has begun to pronounce distinctly against both the black list and the boycott, as well as against the systems based upon them. There can be no doubt of the cruel tyranny which the new system of labour organization tends to erect not only over its enemies, the class of employers and those working men who are not of the order, but over its own members. But the demonstration of the illegality and tyranny does not alter the conditions of the problem, of which it is but a single phase. How are the English common law, its statutory development, and its jury system, to exist when a great mass of the population is discontented, distrustful, and under the dominion of a secret public opinion, and when the way does not seem to be open for a removal of their discontents except by the serious curtailment of the corporate system which has been so powerful an agent in American development and The new era. wealth? The great American republic, then, seems to be entering upon a new era, in which it must meet and solve a new problem—the reconciliation of democracy with the modern conditions of production.
Bibliography.The works treating of the various phases of the history of the United States are so numerous that only the names of the leading authorities can be given:— The histories of the United States by Bancroft (to 1783), Pitkin (to 1797), Ramsay (to 1814), Hildreth (to 1820), Bradford (to 1840), Tucker (to 1840), Spenser (to 1857), Bryant and Gay, Schouler, Von Holst, Higginson; M‘Master, History of the American People; Gilman, History of the American People; Winsor, Narrative and Critical History; Williams, Statesman’s Manual; H. H. Bancroft, History of the Pacific Coast; The American Commonwealth Series; Force, Tracts relating to the Colonies, and American Archives; Poore, Federal and State Constitutions; Hazard, Historical Collections; Neill, English Colonization in America; Dodge, English Colonies in America; Doyle, English Colonies in America; Burke, English Settlements in America; Holmes, Annals of America; Graham, History of the United States; Marshall, History of the Colonies; Palfrey, History of New England; Parkman’s Works; Gordon, History of the Independence of the United States; Winsor, Reader’s Handbook of the Revolution; Carrington, Battles of the Revolution; Ludlow, War of American Independence; Frothingham, Rise of the Republic; Story, Commentaries; Chalmers, Annals of the Colonies, and Revolt of the Colonies; Scott, Constitutional Liberty in the Colonies; Journals of Congress, 1774–89; Annals of Congress, 1789–1824; Register of Debates in Congress, 1824–37; Congressional Globe, 1833–72; Congressional Record, 1872–87; American State Papers (to 1815); Benton, Abridged Debates of Congress (to 1850); United States Statutes at Large; Revised Statutes of the United States; Niles, Weekly Register, 1811–36; Tribune Almanac, 1838–87; Appleton, Annual Cyclopædia, 1861–86; Spofford, American Almanac, 1878–87; M‘Pherson, Political Manuals; Greeley, Political Text-Book, 1860; Cluskey, Political Cyclopædia, 1860; Hamilton, Republic of the United States; Renton, Thirty Years’ View; Young, American Statesman; Johnston, History of American Politics; Stanwood, History of Presidential Elections; Porter, Constitutional History; Story, Commentaries on the Constitution; Kent, Commentaries on American Law; Wharton, Commentaries; Duer, Constitutional Jurisprudence; Brownson, American Republic; Mulford, The Nation; The Federalist; Jameson, Constitutional Convention; “Centz,” Republic of Republics; Tucker, Blackstone’s Commentaries; Curtis, History of the Constitution; Bancroft, History of the Constitution; Elliot, Debates; Cooley, Constitutional Limitations, Taxation, and Constitutional Law; Sedgwick, Statutory and Constitutional Law; Bump, Notes of Constitutional Decisions; Wilson, Congressional Government; Fiske, American Political Ideas; M‘Crary, Election Laws; Rorer, Inter-State Law; Lamphere, American Government; Counting the Electoral Vote, 1787–1876; M‘Knight, Electoral System; Dillon, Municipal Corporations; Morse, Citizenship; Lalor, Political Cyclopædia; Burnet, Settlement of the North-West Territory, 1847; Flint, Geography and History of the Mississippi Valley, 1828; Histories of the various States; Bishop, History of American Manufactures; Seybert, Statistical Annals; Pitkin, Statistical View, 1816; De Bow, Industrial Record of the South and West, 1852; Eighty Years’ Progress of the United States, 1861; First Century of the Republic, 1876; Compendium of the Census, for 1850, 1860, 1870, and 1880; Walker, Statistical Atlas, 1874; Scribner’s Statistical Atlas, 1884; Reports of the Bureau of Statistics, 1866–87; Lyman, Diplomacy of the United States; Trescot, Diplomacy of the Revolution, and Diplomatic History, 1797–1801; Baker, Diplomatic History, 1861–65; Reports of the Secretary of the Treasury; Cooper, History of the Navy (to 1853); Emmons, History of the Navy (to 1853); Preble, History of the American Flag; Roosevelt, Naval History of the War of 1812; Boynton, History of the Navy, 1861–65; Porter, Naval History of the Civil War; Williams, History of the Negro Race; Wilson, Rise and Fall of the Slave Power; Goodell, Slavery and Anti-Slavery; Hurd, Law of Freedom and Bondage; Hammond and others, The Pro-Slavery Argument; Stephens, War between the States; Blaine, Twenty Years in Congress; Official Records of the Civil War; Rebellion Record; Personal Narratives of Grant, Sherman, M‘Clellan, J. E. Johnston, Hood, and Beauregard; Reports of the Committee on the Conduct of the War; Scribner, Campaigns of the Civil War; Battles and Leaders of the Civil War; Comte de Paris, History of the Civil War in America; Greeley, American Conflict; Draper, History of the Civil War; Pollard, Lost Cause; Davis, Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government; American State Papers on Finance (to 1828); Bolles, Financial History of the United States; Sumner, History of American Currency; Gouge, Paper Money in the United States; Spalding, Legal Tender Paper Money; Knox, United States Notes; H. C. Adams, Public Debts; Gibbons, Public Debt of the United States; Reports of the Secretary of the Treasury; Wells, Internal Revenue Commission Report, 1866; Taussig, Protection to Young Industries, and History of the Present Tariff, 1860–83; Young, Tariff Legislation of the United States, 1870; Hadley, Railroad Transportation; Poor, Railroad Manual; Adams, Railroads: their Origin and Problems; Hudson, Railways and the Republic; Ely, Labour Movement in America; Reports of the Bureaus of Statistics of the various States.
| Terms. | Presidents. | Vice-Presidents. |
| 1789–93 | 1. George Washington, Va. | 1. John Adams, Mass. |
| 1793–97 | George Washington. | John Adams. |
| 1797–1801 | 2. John Adams, Mass. | 2. Thomas Jefferson, Va. |
| 1801–05 | 3. Thomas Jefferson, Va. | 3. Aaron Burr, N.Y. |
| 1805–09 | Thomas Jefferson. | 4. George Clinton, N.Y. |
| 1809–13 | 4. James Madison, Va. | George Clinton (d. 1812). |
| 1813–17 | James Madison. | 5. Elbridge Gerry, Mass. (d. 1814). |
| 1817–21 | 5. James Monroe, Va. | 6. Daniel D. Tompkins, N.Y. |
| 1821–25 | James Monroe. | Daniel D. Tompkins. |
| 1825–29 | 6. John Quincy Adams, Mass. | 7. John Caldwell Calhoun, S.C. |
| 1829–33 | 7. Andrew Jackson, Tenn. | John C. Calhoun, (res. 1832). |
| 1833–37 | Andrew Jackson. | 8. Martin Van Buren, N.Y. |
| 1837–41 | 8. Martin Van Buren, N.Y. | 9. Richard Mentor Johnson, Ky. |
| 1841–45 | 9. William Henry Harrison, O. (d. 1841). | 10. John Tyler, Va. |
| 10. John Tyler. | ||
| 1845–49 | 11. James Knox Polk, Tenn. | 11. George Mifflin Dallas, Pa. |
| 1849–53 | 12. Zachary Taylor, La. (d. 1850). | 12. Millard Fillmore, N.Y. |
| 13. Millard Fillmore. | ||
| 1853–57 | 14. Franklin Pierce, N.H. | 13. William Rufus King, Ala. (d. 1853). |
| 1857–61 | 15. James Buchanan, Pa. | 14. John Cabell Breckinridge, Ky. |
| 1861–65 | 16. Abraham Lincoln, Ill. | 15. Hannibal Hamlin, Me. |
| 1865–69 | Abraham Lincoln (d. 1865). | 16. Andrew Johnson, Tenn. |
| 17. Andrew Johnson. | ||
| 1869–73 | 18. Ulysses Simpson Grant, Ill. | 17. Schuyler Colfax, Ind. |
| 1873–77 | Ulysses S. Grant. | 18. Henry Wilson, Mass. (d. 1875). |
| 1877–81 | 19. Rutherford Birchard Hayes, O. | 19. William Almon Wheeler, N.Y. |
| 1881–85 | 20. James Abram Garfield, O. (d. 1881). | 20. Chester Alan Arthur, N.Y. |
| 21. Chester Alan Arthur. | ||
| 1885–89 | 22. Grover Cleveland, N.Y. | 21. Thomas Andrews Hendricks, Ind. (d. 1885). |
The following paragraphs contain a series of biographical notes on American public men, furnishing details of interest which could not without inconvenience have been incorporated in the foregoing continuous history.
Allen, Ethan, was born in Roxbury, Conn., Jan. 10, 1737. He removed about 1766 to Vermont, where he became a leader of the Vermonters, or “Green Mountain Boys,” in their struggle against New York. In 1775 he was the leader of the party which surprised Ticonderoga. He was captured in 1775, sent to England, and not exchanged until 1778. He died at Burlington, Vt., Feb. 12, 1789. He had published a number of somewhat eccentric pamphlets, either personal or attacks on Christianity. — See Spark’s American Biography, vol. i.
Andrew, John Albion (1818–1867), governor of Massachusetts from 1861 to 1866, was born at Windham, Me., May 31, 1818. He became a graduate of Bowdoin College in 1837, and was admitted to the bar in Boston in 1840. He entered political life as a Whig, and the intensity of his anti-slavery convictions stood in his way until 1859, when he was sent to the State legislature. In 1860 he was elected governor. Foreseeing the coming struggle, he organized and equipped the militia of the State, and urged the other New England governors to do likewise. Lincoln’s call for troops was received at Boston, April 15; Andrew had volunteers in motion the next morning; on the afternoon of the 16th three regiments were ready; the Massachusetts Sixth left Boston on the 17th, fought its way through Baltimore on the 19th, and reached Washington the same day. All through the war, Andrew’s devotion to his duties was indefatigable, and it is to his influence that Massachusetts owes her place of pre-eminence in that great struggle. He died suddenly of apoplexy, October 30, 1867. P. W. Chandler has written a memoir of Andrew, and A. S. Brown a sketch of his official life.
Arnold, Benedict, was born at Norwich, Conn., Jan. 3, 1740. His disposition was unruly in his boyhood. When the revolutionary war broke out, he entered the army, and soon became a colonel. He was sent with a detachment through the Maine wilderness to assist Montgomery, and was severely wounded in the assault on Quebec in December, 1775. He was discontented because his promotion was slow, and still more because he had not sufficient opportunity for pecuniary advantage. Distinguishing himself at Bemis Heights and Stillwater, though then under arrest, he asked and obtained command of the post of West Point, the key to the Hudson river. He offered to betray this post to Clinton, but the negotiations were detected, and Clinton’s agent, André, was captured and hanged as a spy, while Arnold escaped to the British lines. He was given a rank in the British army corresponding to that which he had abandoned, and commanded two plundering expeditions. It was not easy to induce other British officers to serve with him, and he went to England, where he seems not to have fared much better. He died in London, June 14, 1801. His Life, in Spark’s American Biography, gives the usual American estimate of him; but a more apologetic biography, by a descendant, has recently been published.
Arthur, Chester Alan (1830–1886), president from 1881 to 1885, was born in Fairfield, Vt., October 5, 1830, his father being a Baptist minister who had immigrated from Ireland. After graduating at Union College in 1848, he was a teacher for several years, and was admitted to the bar in New York in 1853. He rapidly obtained repute as a lawyer, particularly by his management of the cases of fugitive slaves; and, as quartermaster-general of the State of New York during the first two years of the civil war, charged with the duty of arming, equipping, and transporting the troops of the State, he obtained a reputation even higher. He became an active political leader in the Republican organization of New York city, and was appointed collector of the port by President Grant in 1871. Refusing to abstain from active political work, he was removed in 1878 by President Hayes; and in 1880, when Garfield had been nominated by the Republican convention, Arthur was nominated for the vice-presidency, in order to propitiate the supporters of Grant. He was elected with Garfield in November and inaugurated in the following March, and became president when Garfield died (Sept. 19). He proved an exception to the rule that vice-presidents succeeding to the office of president have been failures. To him belongs the credit of a quiet, dignified, and successful administration of public affairs, and, above all, the inception of the reform of the civil service system. He carried out the Pendleton Act for that purpose with honest good-will, and gave it an impetus which it is not likely ever to lose. He quieted the growing ill-feeling between his country and others as to South American affairs. The presence of British representatives at the hundredth anniversary of the surrender of a British army at Yorktown had a certain awkwardness, until the president’s tact and good feeling relieved the pressure
