walls may be requisite before hanging the papers; and washing old papers from off the walls should always be insisted upon by the owner of a house, as accumulations of paste, colours, and size are apt to breed vermin, and, as some think, to give rise to fevers. French paper-hang ings are only eighteen inches wide and nine yards long. "Wood-linings, old panelled wainscoting, and other irregular surfaces, require to be canvased and papered before the decorative paper is hung, otherwise it is liable to crack
with the shrinking of the wood.
The principal publications on house painting arc as follows : ments of the Painter s Art, ]2mo, 1850, and his Chromatography, 4to, 1841 ; Smith, The Art of House Painting, 12mo, 1687, improved by W. Butcher, 8vo, 1821; Whittock, Decorative Painter s Guide, 4to, 1841 ; Moxon, Graiiier s Guide, 1842 ; Barber, Painter s Assistant, 12mo, 1852 ; Wood and Marble Imitator s Manual, 8vo, Edinb. There are two or three French journals which give ex amples of imitations of woods and marbles, and illustrations of decorations for apartments.
Index of Principal Subjects.
Angles, joinings of, 488. A relies in brickwork, 4(54; in stone, 474; centres for, 482; discharging, 465, 466. Architecture, relation of building to, 447. Ashlar work, 471 ; with brickwork, 465. Asphalt, 4-59. Badigeon, 471. Battens, 487. Bending wood, 490. Boards, 487. Bonding, 460, 470. Brick as building mate rial, 448; compared with masonry, 451. Bricklaying, 460. Brickwork, 457-463. Bridge, construction of, 448. Building trades, 456. Building up beams, 477. Cabinetmaking, 499. Carpentry, 476-485. Carved work, 503. Casements, 494 Cements, 459, 504. Footings, 470. Lime, 458. Plaster- work, 504-508; re Stencilling, 512. Cesspools, 468. Foundations, 452, 456. Lintels, 465. sistance of, to fire, 454. Stone as building mate Chimneys, 466. Founder s work, 510. Marbles, imitation, 508. Plumber-work, 502. rial, 512; compared with Cisterns, 503. Framing, 490, 493. Marbling, 512. Plumbing and levelling, bricks, 451. Clay, burned, 458. Gasfitting, 510. Mason-work, 468-47G. 461. Stones used for build ing, Cogging, 481. Gliding, 508. Masts, 477. Pointed cathedral, 448. 469. Columns, stone, 473. Girders, 452, 482 Modelling, 508. Pointing, 464. Straps, 480. Concrete, 453, 456. Glazing, 509. Mortars, 458 ; preparation Pozzuolana, 549. String-courses, 472. Construction, general Glue, 489. of, 460; use of, 462, Hoofing, 484, 501, 503. Stucco, 504. principles of, 447-456. Graining, 512. 470. Rough cast, 507. Tenons, 479, 481,491. Coping,464, 472. Grouting, 462 Mortising, 479, 481, 491. Rubble walling, 470. Thatching, 501. Coving, 45(5. Gutters, 502. Mouldings, 473, 506 ; vari Sashes, 494; fitting of, Tiles, ornamental, 4C7. Cornices, 506; of brick, Halls, 449. ous kinds of, 487; fixing 496. Tiling, 463. 461. Herring-bone brickwork, of, 492. Sawyer-work, 476. Timber as building mate Cramping, 489. 461. Notching, 481. Scaffolding, 457, 468. rial, 448 ; kinds used, Cuttings for railways, Hinges, 492. Painting, 510. Scagliola, 508. 477; shrinkage, 486. &c., 449. Iron as building mate Paper-hanging, 512. Scarping, 478, 480. Tracery, 475. Damp-proof course, 462. rial, 447. Pargetting, 466. Scribing, 494. Traps in drains, 467. Decorative work, 508, 512. Joggles, 472. Partitions, 454 ; in brick Sewers, 467. Trass, 459. Doors, 491. Joinery, 484-499. work, 463; of timber, Sgraffito, 508. Trimming, 482. Drains, 467. Joints in brickwork, 462 ; 484. Shutters, 496. Varnishing, 612 Enrichments, 506. in carpentry, 477 ; vari Paving in brick, 466; in Skirtings, 493. Vaulting, 475. Excavation, 4-36. ous forms of, 479; In tiles, 467 ; in stone, Slater-work, 500. Wall-plates, 465. Fire, precautions against, joinery, 488. 473. Smith-work, 510. Walls, thickness of. 451 ; 463. Knotting, 511. Pillars, 484 Solder, 502. hollow, 463. Fixing joiners work, Landings, 472. Pipes, 503. Spires, 475. Wedging, 479, 481. 492 Lathing, 504. Pise work, 471. Stability, 447. Window fittinps, 496. Flooring, 452, 482, 493. Lead, 602. Planks, 487. Stairs, 454, 473, 497-499. Wood-bricks, 465.
BUILDING SOCIETIES, or societies " for the purpose of raising, by the subscriptions of the members, a stock or fund for making advances to members out of the funds of the society upon freehold, copyhold, or leasehold estate by way of mortgage," may be " either terminating or perma nent " (37 and 38 Viet. c. 42, 13).
A “terminating” society is one " which by its rules is to terminate at a fixed elate, or when a result specified in its rules is attained;" a " permanent " society is one "which has not by its rules any such fixed date or specified result, at which it shall terminate" ( 5).
A more popular description of these societies would bo, Societies by means of which every man may become " his own landlord," their main purpose being to collect together the small periodical subscriptions of a number of members, until each in his turn has been able to receive a sum sufficient to aid him materially in buying his dwelling- house.
The origin and early history of these societies is not very clearly traceable. A mention of " building clubs " in Birmingham occurs in 1705; one is known to have been established by deed in the year 1809 at Greenwich; an other is said to have been founded in 1825, under the auspices of the earl of Selkirk at Kirkcudbright in Scot land, and we learn (Scratchley On Building Societies, p. 5) that similar societies in that kingdom adopted the title of "menages."
When the Friendly Societies Act of 1834 gave effect to the wise and liberal policy of extending its benefits to societies for frugal investment, and generally to all associa tions having a similar legal object, several building socie ties were certified under it, so many, indeed, that in 183G a short Act was passed (6 and 7 Will. IV. cap. 32), confirm ing to them the privileges granted by the Friendly Societies Act, and according to them the additional privileges (very valuable at that time) of exemption from the usury laws, simplicity in forms of conveyance, power to reconvey by a mere endorsement under the hands of the trustees for the time being, and exemption from stamp duty. This Act remained unaltered till 1874.
The early societies were all " terminating," consisting of a limited number of members, and coming to an end as soon as every member had received the amount agreed upon as the value of his shares.
Take, as a simple typical example of the working of such a society, one the shares of which are 120 each, realizable by sub scriptions of 10s. a month during 14 years. Fourteen years hap pens to be nearly the time in which, at 5 per cent, compound interest, a sum of money becomes doubled. Hence the present value, at the commencement of the society, of the 120 to be real ized at its conclusion, or (what is the same thing) of the subscrip tions of 10s. a month by which that 120 is to be raised, is 60. If such a society had issued 120 shares, the aggregate subscriptions for the first month of its existence would amount to exactly the sum required to pay one member the present value of one share. One member would accordingly receive a sum down of 60, and in order to protect the other members from loss, would execute a mortgage of his dwelling-house for ensuring the payment of the future sub scription of 10s. per month until every member had in like manner obtained an advance upon his shares, or accumulated the 120 per share.
As 60 is not of itself enough to buy a house, even of the most modest kind, eveiy member desirous of using the society for its ori ginal purpose of obtaining a dwelling-house by its means would require to take more than one share. In this respect the Act of 1 836 presented a curious inconsistency ; it limited the amount of each share to 150, and the amount of the monthly contributions on each share to 1, but did not limit the number of shares a member might hold. If its purpose in this respect was to confine the operation of these societies to the industrial classes, it was de fective. The only rational explanation of the provision is that it was an anticipation of the modern system of limited liability.
usually adopt the title " Building Society ;" or they added to societies, it some further descriptive title, as "Accumulating Fund," " Savings Fund," or " Investment Association." Several
are described as "Societies for obtaining freehold property,"
