of communication are not great, and schools and churches far apart, or wanting altogether. Those who have made fortunes in mining come to " the Bay " to spend them ; those who have lost their all, or become " strapped,"- to use the miner s phrase, go to the great city to find employment. And San Francisco is not only the metro polis of California, but of the whole Pacific coast. There is not another city or town having one-tenth of its popu lation anywhere from Alaska to Panama. It has the only really good harbour along the entire line of coast from Lower California north to Puget Sound, that of San Diego excepted, and this has a desert region behind it, where settlements cannot be made. The population of San Francisco, by the census of 1870, was 149,473, having increased to that number in the previous decade from S6,802, the gain of the city being relatively consider ably greater than that of the State itself. Sacramento city, the capital, is the only other town in California which has as much as one-tenth of this number. It is claimed, indeed, that the present (1876) population of San Francisco is not less than 250,000, the increase having been unusually large during the past year, which has been, on the whole, a very prosperous one for the State. The other large towns are Sacramento, 16,283; Oakland, 10,500; San Jose, 9089 ; Grass Valley, 7063 ; and Los Angeles, 5728, all these figures being those of the census of 1870. The population of the whole State, according to the sa.me authority, was, in 1870, 582,031, an increase of 53 per cent, since the previous census of 1860. The growth of California has not been in the years from 1860 to 1870 as rapid as in the decade preceding that, when the increase amounted to 310 per cent. Remarkable as has been the development of this State, it does not equal that of some of those of the Mississippi Valley during the same period. Thus lov/a gained more between the years 1860 and 1870 than did California, although having only one-third of the area of that State ; and in the decade previous to that her gain was relatively nearly equal to that of the Golden State, and actually twice as great. The actual increase of popula tion in Massachusetts, with its area of only 7800 square miles, was greater in the years 1860-1870 than was that
of California.The brilliant discoveries of metalliferous deposits in Nevada, wholly developed within the past fifteen years, have added much to the wealth and resources of California, for the ties of business are nearly as strong between the two States as if there were no political line of division between them. Nearly all the capital invested in the region at the eastern base of the Sierra came from the Pacific side of the mountains, and most of the machinery used there has been constructed in San Francisco. Nevada takes a large amount of the surplus agricultural products of California, and gives bullion in exchange, that being the only thing she produces for exportation.
The Chinese element in California is a peculiar and interesting feature. By the last census there were 49.310 of that race in the State. They are settled in great numbers in San Francisco, where they are house-servants, and opera tives in the manufacturing establishments, which could not be successfully carried on with white labour. They also work the abandoned placers, although the amount of their gains in this operation must usually be very small, as they are only allowed to occupy spots supposed by the white men to have been quite worked out. " The white miners have a great dislike to Chinamen, who are frequently driven away from their claims, and expelled from districts by mobs. In such cases the officers of the law do not ordinarily interfere ; and, no matter how much the unfor tunate yellow men may be beaten or despoiled, the law does not attempt to restore them to their rights or avenge their wrongs " (Hittell, in Resources of California, 3d ed. p. 375).
General Considerations.—Finally, California has in its favour its immense extent of area, its variety of physical configuration, the fertility of a portion of its soil, and, above all, the mildness and attractiveness of its climate. Its position on the Pacific is one which justifies the confident expectation that the commercial interests of San Francisco will continue to increase in magnitude, since it must always concentrate the trade of an immense area. There are some conditions which may eventually operate powerfully to retard the development of this State. Of these the most important is, perhaps, the wastefulness of the present method of agriculture, by which crops are continually taken from the soil, and nothing restored to it. Another serious matter is the constant wholesale destruction of the forests going on in the Coast Ranges and in the Sierra ; there is reason to fear that this will eventually have a disastrous effect on the regimen of the rivers, causing inundations in the spring and excessive droughts in summer. The danger , from earthquakes has already been alluded to ; and there is no question that it has had and will continue to have an influence in retarding the growth of the State, as there is not the least doubt that it similarly affects the whole South American Pacific coast. The facility with which the legislature can be manipulated, and brought to sanction schemes fraught with injury to the people, is not a circum stance peculiar to California ; although, in several instances, heavy blows have in this way been struck at the prosperity of San Francisco. The distrust of the legislature often leads the people to reject that which is good, from the fear that an undertaking which looks well at the start may be so managed as to result in ruin. Thus, it seems impossible to carry out any general system of irrigation, or of forest culture and preservation, desirable as these things may be, because the people have no confidence in anything which has to be managed by the legislature, or which can be interfered with by that body at any time, and diverted to the subservience of private ends, to the injury of the public.
CALIGULA, Caius Cæsar, the third of the Roman emperors, was the son of Germanicus and Agrippina, and was born in 12 A.D. He was brought up in his father s camp among the soldiers, and received the name Caligula, from the caiigae, or foot-soldiers shoes, which he used to wear. In 32 he was summoned to Tiberius, who was then living at Caprege, and did all in his power to ingratiate himself with the tyrant. Perhaps about 35 he married his first wife, Junia Claudia, who died in the following year. Caligula seems then to have resolved upon obtaining the succession to the empire. For this purpose he leagued himself with Macro, commander of the praetorian guards, whose wife he had seduced, and there can be no doubt that the death of Tiberius was hastened by one or both of them. The senate conferred the imperial power upon Caligula alone, although Tiberius, the grandson of the preceding emperor, had been designated as co-heir, and he entered on his first consulship in July 37. For an account of his reign and character see Roman History.
Mahometans, vested with an almost absolute authority in all matters relating to religion and civil polity. In the Arabic it signifies successor or vicar, the caliphs
bearing the same relation to Mahomet that the popes, in
