the estimation of Roman Catholics, bear to St Peter. It is at this day one of the titles of the grand seignior or sultan, who claims to be successor to Mahomet, through the line including Abu-Bekr, Oman, and Othman (the Sun- nite view), and also of the Sophi or Sufi of Persia as claimant through Ali (the Shiite view). The history of the rule of the Sophis may occasionally remind the student of the saying current respecting Russian autocracy some fifty years ago, that it was " despotism tempered by assassina tion." AVhen Louis XIV. was one day, in the presence of some courtiers, extolling the government of the Sophis as something approaching to an almost ideal excellence, the Marshal d Estrees replied, " But, sire, I have seen three of them strangled during my lifetime." One of the chief functions of the caliph, in his quality of imaum or chief priest of Islamism, was to begin the public prayers every Friday in the chief mosque, and to deliver the khootba or sermon. In after times they had assistants for this latter office ; but the former was always performed by the caliph in person. The caliph was also obliged to lead the pilgrims to Mecca in person, and to march at the head of the armies of his empire. He granted investiture to princes and sent swords, standards, gowns, and the like, as presents to princes of the Mahometan religion, who, though they had thrown off the yoke of the caliphate, held of it as vassals. The caliphs usually went to the mosque mounted on mules ; and the Seljukian sultans, though masters of Baghdad, held their stirrups and led their mules by the bridle some distance on foot, till the caliphs gave them the sign to mount on horseback. At a window of the caliph s palace there always hung a piece of black velvet 20 cubits long, which reached to the ground, and was called the caliph s sleeve ; this the grandees of his court kissed daily with great respect. After the destruction of the caliphate by Hulagu, the Maho metan princes appointed a particular officer in their respec tive dominions to sustain the sacred authority of caliph. In Turkey this officer is called mufti, and in Persia sadne.|1}} {{ti|1em|The successions of caliphs continued from the death of Mahomet till the 655th year of the Hegira, when Baghdad was taken by the Tatars. After this, however, there were persons who claimed the caliphate, as pretending to be of the family of the Abbassides, and to them the sultans of Egypt rendered great honours at Cairo, as the true .successors of Mahomet ; but this honour was merely titular, and the right allowed them only in matters of religion ; and though they bore the sovereign title of caliphs, they were subjects and dependents of the sultans. In the year of the Hegira 361, a kind of caliphate was erected by the Fatimites in Africa, and lasted till it was suppressed by Saladin. Historians also speak of a third caliphate in Yemen or Arabia Felix, erected by some princes of the family of the Jobites. The emperors of Marocco assume the title of grand scherifs, and pretend to be the true caliphs, or successors of Mahomet, though under another name. For particulars concerning the caliphs and caliphate see works bearing on Mahometan rule, such as Ockley s History of the Saracens ; Gibbon s Decline and Fall, chap, li.; Von Hammer, Histoire des Ottomans ; and for a brief survey, Freeman s History and Conquests of the Saracens,
Oxford, 1856. See also articles Abbasides and Mahometanism.CALISTHENICS. See Gymnastics.
CALITRI, a town of Italy, in the province of Principato Ulteriore and district of Sant Angelo de Lombardi, about 40 miles S.E. of Benevento. It is situated on an eminence near the River Ofanto, and is supposed to occupy the site of an ancient town called Alefrium. Its principal buildings are the parish church and a Benedictine convent. Population, 6629
CALIXTUS, the name of three different popes or bishops of Rome. Little is known of Calixtus I., bishop of Rome from about 220-226 A.D., during the reigns of Heliogabalus and Severus. Calixtus II., Guido of Vienne, was elected in 111 9, after the death of Gelasius II. In 1122 he concluded with the Emperor Henry the important treaty of Mcntz, by which the mutual rights of the church and the empire were definitely settled. He died in December 1124. Calixtus III., Alphonso de Borgia, was raised to the Papal chair in 1455 at a very advanced age. He was feeble and incompetent. The great object of his policy was the excitement of a crusade against the Turks, but he did not find the Christian princes responsive to his call. He died in 1458.
CALIXTUS, Georgius (1586-1656), a celebrated Lutheran divine, born at Middleburg in Holstein in 1586. After studying at Helmstadt, Jena, Giessen, Tubingen, and Heidelberg, he had an opportunity of travelling through France and England, where he became acquainted with the leading Reformers, and saw the different forms which the Reformed church had assumed. On his return he was appointed professor of divinity at Helmstadt by the duke of Brunswick, who had admired his abilities in a contest which he had when a young man with the Jesuit Augustine Turrianus. After becoming a master of arts he published a book, Disputationes de Prascipuis Eeligionis Christianas Capitals, which provoked the hostile criticism of several learned men ; and on his elevation to the professorship he published his Epitome of Theology, and soon after his Epitome of Moral Theology, which gave so great offence as to induce Statius Buscher to charge him with a secret leaning to Romanism. Scarcely had he refuted the accusa tion of Buscher, when, on account of his intimacy with the Reformed divines at the conference of Thorn, and his desire to unite them with the Lutherans, a new charge was preferred against him, principally at the instance of Calovius, of a secret attachment to Calvinism. The disputes to which this gave rise, known in the church as the Syncretistic controversy, lasted during the whole lifetime of Calixtus, and distracted the Lutheran Church, till a new controversy arose with Spener and the Pietists of Halle. Calixtus died in 1656. There is a monograph on Calixtus by Henke, 2 vols. 1853-56 ; see also Dorner, Gesch. d. Protest. Theol, pp. 606-624.
Lima, the capital city, in 12 4 S. lat., 77 13 W. long It is built on a flat point of land in the recess of a spacious and well-sheltered bay, which is partly enclosed by the islands of San Lorenzo and Fronton, and affords the best anchorage on the Peruvian coast. The modern town lies half a mile north of the site of an older city, destroyed by an earthquake and invasion of the sea in 1746. It con sists mainly of houses built of wicker-work and plastered with mud, stronger buildings being dangerous from the frequency of earthquakes; but a walled quadrangular fortress, built by the Spanish Government between 1770 and 1775, extends over about 15 acres, and is now used for the custom-house offices and stores. There are also several forts mounting cannon, and among the public buildings are the military and naval Government offices and barracks, three Catholic churches and a Protestant chapel, two clubs, a hospital, and four banks. Several newspapers are published in the town. Callao is the headquarters of the Pacific Steam Navigation Company in South America (incorporated in 1840), and the works in connection with their large fleet of steam-vessels foundries, carpenters shops, flour-mills, bakeries, and gas works occupy a large area near the custom-house. A large steam sugar-refinery is also in operation. Harbour works,
consisting of sea walls of concrete blocks, and docks, with
