and rescripts of a much earlier time, in which their exist- ence is recognized John V. (ob 686), Stephen V. (ob. 817), Leo IV (ob. 855) Adrian II. (ob. 872), Sergius IIL (ob. 911), Gregory VII. (ob. 1085), and Alexander IIL (ob 1181) may be cited among the early popes who con ferred privileges or special indulgences on the order. They further quote John XXII. (ob. 1334), Sixtus IV. (ob. 1484), Julius III. (ob. 1555), Pius V. (ob. 1572), Gregory XIII. (ob 1585), Sixtus V, (ob. 1590), and Clement VIII. (ob. 1605) as having all, in various documents, recognized the fact of their foundation by Elias. And, lastly, Benedict XIII. in 1725, permitted the order to erect in St Peter s, among the statues of the founders of the religious orders, that of Elias as their founder, with the inscription, Universus Ordo C armelitarum fundatori suo Sancto Elice
prophetce crexit !
The terra Universus in the above legend is intended to indicate that all the different branches of the order participated in the erec tion of the statue, although they have become entirely separate so cieties The monks of that portion of the order which had adhered to the ancient rule, modified and mitigated, however, in some respects by Innocent IV. (ob. 1254), and more largely by Eugenius IV. (ob. 1447), are termed Carmelites of the Ancient Observance. Shortly after the changes made in the rule by Pope Eugenius IV., several local reformations were effected in the order in different countries, one in France by the general Jean Soreth of Normandy in 1451, and another in the congregation at Mantua, which rapidly spread itself, and, much to the disgust of the general of that portion of the order which adhered to the old rule, obtained from the Pon tiff the right to elect a vicar-general of their own, not subject to the jurisdiction or the approbation ot the general. Various other partial reformations were effected, and the members of those congre gations which adopted them are styled "Reformed Carmelites." But a more important, 01 at least a more marked and decided divi sion into two branches was brought about by one of the most note worthy personages in all the Catholic hagiology, Saint Teresa. This extraordinary woman, a native of Avila, in old Castile, became a Carmelite nun in a nunnery of the order in that city in 1535. She at once determined on carrying out the rule in all its primitive strictness ; but finding this insufficient to satisfy her abounding zeal and ambition, she obtained in 1562 a brief from Pope Pius IV. authorizing her to establish a separate branch of the order, the more austere observances of which should be modelled according to her own views. Very shortly several nunneries of " Barefoot Carmelite Nuns" were established, mainly in Spain. Her success thus far soon led her to the more ambitious project of introducing a similar reform among the Carmelite body of the other se^c. And this also she accom plished by the assistance of two or three of the leading members of the Carmelite community. The members of the communities which received this reformed rule, or which were founded for the obser vance of it, were called Barefoot Carmelites (Carmes Dechaussis, or Carmelitani Scalzi), in distinction to those of the older bodies. For some time, however, the monasteries and nunneries of the Barefoot Carmelites remained subject to the general of the parent body ; till in 1580 Pope Gregory XIII. at the instance of Philip II. of Spain, permitted them to elect their own provincial generals, who were, however, still subject to the general of the entire order. But Sixtus V. having regard to the greatly increased and increasing number of their establishments, granted them, in 1587, the privilege of elect ing a vicar-general of their own. Finally, Clement VIII., in 1593, separated them entirely from the other Carmelites, empowered them to elect a general of their body, and constituted them a separate Order of Friars Mendicant, dispositions which were subsequently confirmed by Gregory XV.
The Carmelites originally wore white woollen dresses. But inas much as the Orientals among whom they dwelt deemed this colour a mark of nobility, they adopted striped dresses, specimens of which may still be seen in ancient paintings, the colours of such stripes being sometimes white, grey, and black, and sometimes white and dark brown. After their establishment in Europe, however, these striped dresses were abandoned, and by the authority of Honorius IV., they began in 1287 to wear a white cape and scapulary, which was, however, shortly afterwards changed for dark brown. Over this dress they now wear a white cloak and hood when they quit their convent.
The device, both of the original body and of the Barefoot Carmel ites, consists of a mountain, topped by three stars, and above this a crown, from the middle of which comes forth an arm grasping a sword. The mountain represents Mount Carmel ; the stars sym bolize theVirgin Stella mar is to whom the order is more especially dedicated ; the crown figures forth her supremacy ; the arm is the arm of Elias; and the sword it grasps is the token of his zeal. A Gne drawn across the top of the mountain differentiates the device as used by the Barefoot Carmelites. The order has been, and is indeed still, a very wide-spread one, in all quarters of the globe.
CARMICHAEL, Gershom (1672-1729), a metaphysician of whom Sir William Hamilton has said that he " may be regarded, on good grounds, as the real founder of the Scottish school of philosophy." He was born about the year 1672, probably in London, where his father, a Presbyterian minister who had been banished by the Scotch Privy Council for his religious opinions, was then living. Gershom was educated at Edinburgh Uni versity. He graduated there in 1691, and soon after became a Piegent at St Andrews. In 1694 he was elected, a Master in the University of Glasgow, an office that was converted into the profesorship of Moral Philosophy in 1727, when the system of Masters was abolished at Glas gow. He was an eminently successful teacher, attracting students from England as well as Scotland, but his warm temper led him into various disputes with the principal and other college authorities, in consequence of which he was more than once suspended from his functions. His works are Breviuscula Introduclio ad Logicam, a treatise on logic and the psychology of the intellectual powers, in which among other things he affirms that all knowledge may be resolved into immediate judgments known in their own light ; Synopsis Theologize Naturalis ; and an edition of Puffendorff De Officio Hominis et Ciris, with notes and supplements of high value. Carmichael died in 1729.
from cochineal. It may be prepared by exhausting cochineal with boiling w r ater and then treating the clear solution with alum, cream of tartar, or acid oxalate of potassium ; the colouring and animal matters present in the liquid are thus precipitated. Or an aqueous decoction of black cochineal is made, and treated with stannic chloride : a slow deposition of carmine then takes place ; the liquid is poured off, and the carmine dried. Another process is to add to 15 quarts of boiling river water 1 ft) of cochineal, and a clear solution of 6 drachms of carbonate of soda in 1 fib of water, and boil for thirty minutes. The liquid is then cooled, and 6 drachms of powdered alum are stirred in. After twenty minutes the resulting scarlet liquid is decanted, mixed well with the white of two eggs beaten up in i & of water, and again boiled for a short time ; it is then left quiet for about half an hour, after which it is decanted, and the carmine which has been deposited is drained on a cloth, spread out on plates with an ivory or silver spatula, covered with white paper, and dried. By this process about 1 J oz. of carmine is obtained from 1 5) of cochineal. Another method is to add 3 oz. of nitre and 4 oz. of acid oxalate of potassium to an in fusion of 1 ft of cochineal, and to boil for ten minutes. After four hours standing, the liquid is poured into flat dishes, where it is left for three weeks. At the end of this time it is freed of the coating of mould formed upon it, and is drawn off, leaving a firm layer of carmine of fine colour. There are several other modes of preparing carmine, in some of which gelatine is used to assist its precipitation. The quality of carmine is affected by the temperature and the degree of illumination during its preparation, sunlight being requisite for the production of a brilliant hue. It differs also according to the amount of alumina present in it. It is sometimes adulterated with cinnabar, starch, and other materials ; from these the carmine can be separated by dissolving it in ammonia. Good carmine should crumble readily between the fingers when dry. Chemically, carmine is said to be a compound of colouring matter and a special animal piinciple with an
acid from one of the agents employed to precipitate them.
