See Fernao Lopes, Chromca del Rey Dom Pedro, 1735 ; Camoens, Os Lusiadas ; Antonio Ferreira s Ines de Castro, the first regular tragedy of the Renaissance after the Sofonisba of Trissino ; Luis Velez de Guevara, Reinar des/mes de morir, an admirable play ; and Ferdinand Denis, Chroniques Chevaleresqucs de VEspagiw et du Portugal.
CASTRO, João de (1500-1548), called by Camoens Castro forte, fourth viceroy of the Portuguese Indies, was the son of Alvaro de Castro, civil governor of Lisbon. A younger son, and destined therefore for the church, he became at an early age a brilliant humanist, discover- also a profound capacity for mathematics. The latter he studied under Pedro Nunez, in company with the In fante Dom Luis, son of Emmanuel the Great, with whom he contracted a life-long friendship. At eighteen he went to Tangiers, where he was dubbed knight by Duarte de Menezes the governor, and where he remained several years. In 1535 he accompanied Dom Luis to the siege of Tunis, where he had the honour of refusing knighthood and reward at the hands of the great emperor Charles V. Returning to Lisbon, he received from the king the small commandership of Sao Pablo de Salvaterra in 1538. He was exceedingly poor, but his wife Lenor de Coutinho, a noble Portuguese lady, the exact date of whose marriage with him is not known, admired and appreciated her husband sufficiently to make light of their poverty. Soon after this he left for the Indies in company with his uncle Garcia de Noronha, and on his arrival at Goa enlisted among the aventureiros, " the bravest of the brave, " told off for the relief of Diu. In 1540 he served on an expedition under Estabao de Gama, by whom his son, Alvaro de Castro, a child of thirteen, was knighted, out of compliment to him. Returning to Portugal, Joao de Castro was named com mander of a fleet, in 1543, to clear the European seas of pirates ; and in 1545 he was sent, with six sail, to the Indies, in the room of Martin de Souza, who had been dismissed the viceroyalty. The next three years were the hardest and most brilliant, as they were the last, of this great man s life, years of battle and struggle, of glory and sorrow, of suffering and triumph. Valiantly seconded by his sons (one of whom, Fernao, was killed before Diu) and by Joao Mascarenhas, Joao de Castro achieved such popu larity by the overthrow of Mahmoud, king of Cambodia, by the relief of Diu, and by the defeat of the great army of Adhel Khan, that he could contract a very large loan with the Goa merchants on the simple security of his moustache. These great deeds were followed by the cap ture of Broach, by the complete subjugation of Malacca, and by the passage of Antonio Moniz into Ceylon ; and in 1547 the great captain was appointed viceroy by Joao III., who had at last accepted him without mis trust. He did not live long to fill this charge, expiring in the arms of his friend, St Francis Xavier, 6th June of the following year. He was buried at Goa, but his remains were afterwards exhumed and conveyed to Portugal, to be reinterred under a splendid monument in the convent of Bemfica.
See Jacinto Freire de Andrade, Vida de D. Joa5 de Castro, Lisbon, 1651, English translation, by Sir Peter "Wyche, 1664; Joao de Barros, Dccada secunda da Asia, bk. viii. ; Roteiro de Dom Joam de Castro, Paris, 1833. The last is important as fixing the position of Joao de Castro among geographers.
CASTROVILLARI, a town of Italy, in the province of Calabria Citra, 7 miles W.X.W. of Cassano. It stands on an eminence surrounded by lofty mountains, and the modern portion contains several handsome streets. The massive castle is supposed to belong to the Norman period. The town carries on a considerable trade in cotton, wine, silk, and fruits, and has about 9400 inhabitants.
CASTRUCCIO CASTRACANI (1283-1328) was by birth a Luccheae, and by descent and training a Ghibelline. He belonged to the family of Antelminelli ; and being exiled at an early age with his parents and others of their faction by the Guelfs, then in the ascendant, and orphaned at nineteen, he served as a soldier in England, France, and Lombardy, till he returned to Italy in 1313, and was chosen chief by the Ghibellmes, who had again obtained the mastery. To avenge himself on the vanquished fac tion he called in Uguccione da Faggiuola, lord of Pisa, who treated him ill and perfidiously, putting him in irons and sacking the city of Lucca, in spite of strenuous support received from Castruccio in many arduous enterprises, particularly in that of Montecatini. An insurrection of the Lucchese leading to the explusion of Uguccione and his party, Castruccio regained his freedom and his position, and the Ghibelline triumph was presently assured. Elected governor of Lucca in 1316, he warred incessantly against the Florentines, becoming the faithful adviser and staunch supporter of the Emperor Louis V., whom he accom panied to Rome, and who made him duke of Lucca, count of the Lateran Palace, and senator of the empire. Cas truccio was excommunicated with his master by the Papal Legate, in the interest of the Guelfs, and died soon after wards, leaving several young children, whose fortunes w r ero wrecked in the Guelfic triumph consequent on their father s death.
Machiavelli s Life of Castruccio is a mere biographical romance ; it was translated into French, with notes, by Dreux de Eadier in 1753 ; See Nicolas Negrini, Vita di Castruccio, Modena, 1496 ; Sismondi s and Leo s Histories of the Italian Republics ; and Wie- land, Dissertatio de Castruccio, Leipsic, 1779.
CASUISTRY is the application of general moral rules to particular cases, but the word is specially limited to the consideration of cases of possible dubiety, since it is only where difficulty exists that formal treatment is necessary. Any important development of casuistry can only take place under a government by laws expressed in definite precepts; but the development may have its origin in either of two opposite causes, or in a combination of the two—in the desire, namely, to fulfil the laws, or in the desire to evade them, or in a conflict of these desires.
Of these principles a remarkable illustration is given by the Jews. Governed as they were by the written precepts of Moses, they were continually confronted by questions which did not clearly come under any one rule, but of which a solution was required by their extreme reverence for the smallest dicta of their code. This worship of every jot and tittle of the law, which was the most remarkable characteristic of their conscientiousness, determined the nature of their casuistry. It was exact, detailed, unbending, and, though often wise and noble, often useless and merely external. Thus it forbade the wearing of a girdle on the Sabbath, decided to a yard how far one might walk on that day, and declared the consequences of an oath by the gift on the altar to be most serious, while an oath by the altar itself was perfectly safe. Its loosest requirements were those which concerned marriage, for it was practically possible to divorce a wife at will. Of these rules some may be found in the Apocrypha, but their great repository is the encyclopædic Talmud, which entered into the minutiæ of conduct with a detail which tended to prevent real obedience to great laws, and which was disastrous to individual freedom. It must, however, be remembered in considering the religious casuistry of the Jews that—as is also remarkably the case with the Mahometans—their religious code was intended to be at the same time their civil law, and that, consequently, part of their casuistry is comprised in our law-books. In fact, the task of our judges is to solve questions of legal casuistry, and the precedents which they make are, so far, comparable to the traditions of the elders.
