God was everywhere and in everything. Alongside of this God was original uncreated matter, the source of all evil. These two made up the universe, which remained a constant quantity. There could, therefore, be no real redemption from sin. There could be nothing super natural. There was merely the apparent evolution and involution of the same reason and matter. This mode of thought is fatal to final causes, fatal to a special aim on God s part, fatal to a special interest in man, and therefore
fatal to Christianity.
The writers who have discussed Celsus and his opinions are numerous. Most of them are mentioned in the must recent work on the subject, Celsus Wahres Wort : dltcste Strcitschrift antiker Weltanschauung gcgcn das Christenthum vom </a/ir 178 n. Chr., von DrTheodor Keim, Zurich, 1873. This is a translation of the True Discourse, with dissertations on the life, date, arguments, &c. of Cel sus. The best expositions of the opinions of Celsus are given in Redepenning a Origciics (Bonn, 1841) ; in Baur s Die Christlidie Kirche dcr Drei Ersttn Jahrhundcrte (Tub., I860); and in Kellner s Hellcnismus und Christenthum (Cologne, 1866). The fragments of Celsus in Greek were collected by Jachmanu (1836).
CELTIBERIA, the country of the Celtiberi, was an extensive inland division of Spain, lying between the basin of the Iberus or Ebro and the sources of the Tagus, Douro, I and Guadiana, and comprehending the greater portion of 1 the modern provinces of Cuenca and Soria, the south-west half of Aragon, and part of Burgos. By the Romans tha name was employed almost as synonymous with Hispania Citerior. It was a hilly and barren region, intersected with valleys of great fertility. Of the chief cities the most famous were Segobriga, the capital ; Bilbilis, the birth place of tha poet Martial ; and Numantia, besieged ten years by the Romans, and taken and destroyed by Scipio Africanus, 133 B.C. The Celtilerians, as their name imports, were considered to have arisen from the inter marriage of Iberians with the Celts that, having crossed the Pyrenees from Gaul, subdued and settled amongst them. The new race thus formed were a brave and powerful people, whose warlike qualities, improved by conflicts with their neighbours and the Carthaginians, rendered them formidable opponents of the Romans, whom they not un- frequently defeated After their overthrow by Scipio, and their consequent alliance with their conquerors, they fre quently revolted; but, on the assassination of their leader Ser- torius in 72 B.C., they were subdued by Pompey, and from that time Celtiberia submitted quietly to Roman influence.
CELTIC LITERATURE
THE Greeks gave the collective name Keltai to a names of | Western people, and the name Kdtike to the land which they inhabited. The region to which the latter term was applied varied according to the more or less accurate knowledge of each writer who used the term. The use of the word Keltai was equally vague and variable ; and this was due as much to the great movements of peoples which took place some centuries before the Christian era as to the want of knowledge of the early Greek writers. One of the displacements of tribes due to those movements has immediate connection with our present subject, the migra tion of some of the Keltai by the valley of the Danube and Northern Greece into Asia Minor ; for in the names Galatai given to the people, and Galatia given to the land wherein they settled, we have forms which connect the Greek Keltai and Kdtike with the Roman Galli and Gallice, and both, perhaps, with Goidil, Gaeidil, or Gaedhil, the name of one branch of the descendants of the Keltai, or, to use the modern form of the word, Celts. If Guidtt, or, in the modern Scottish form, Gael, be radically connected with Keltai, Galatai, and Galli, these names would repre sent that by which the original nation, or one of its principal tribes, called itself. We do not know the collective name by which the Germans designated their neighbours. Dieffenbach suggests that it may exist in Halidgastes, a man s name, which, as frequently happened, from a tribe name became an appellative, and exists now in the modern German word Held.
When the Romans became first acquainted with the Celts there were two Gauls, Cisalpine Gaul or Northern Italy, and Transalpine or Greater Gaul, which included not only France but also Belgium, all that part of Germany west of the Rhine, and Western Switzerland. Whether any Celtic tribes lived east of the Rhine since the attack of the Gauls on Rome, and whether the frontier of the Germans and Celts was a fixed one within historic times or a constantly advancing oae, are questions which we have not space to discuss, nor, if we had, would it be profitable to do so in the absence of any real facts to work upon. To the Continental Celtic ground above defined we have to add the British Islands.
The determination of the limits of the Celtic ground is based chiefly on linguistic evidence. Unfortunately, as regards the Continental part, our materials are scant, and hence a good deal of room is left for the imagination. Thus it has been much discussed whether the language spoken in every part of ancient Gaul was the same. Some have asserted that the Belgians were Germans, and there fore spoke a Teutonic tongue, and that even the Celtic dialect spoken north of the Loire differed considerably from that spoken south of that river in Aquitaine. This opinion was based upon a well-known passage in Caesar s History of the Gallic War, in which he states that Gaul was divided into three parts which differed among themselves in language, institutions, and laws. This may mean either that three distinct languages were spoken, or if but one language, that there were three well-marked dialects. M. Roget de Belloguet has shown from a careful investiga tion of all ancient authorities, and an analysis of nearly 400 Gaulish words gathered from ancient authors and inscriptions, that the differences in question were dialectic, and that, save, perhaps, in those parts occupied by a Ligurian or Basque people, the same language was spoken in all Gaul.
Community of language does not, however, necessarily imply community of race. People having no kinship may speak the same language, while others nearly akin may speak widely different languages. This has been found to have been the case in Gaul as elsewhere. One language was spoken by two races which gradually fused into one people a northern, fair-haired, blue-eyed race, of tall sta ture, lymphatic temperament, and elongated heads, and a southern race, shorter in stature and dry and nervous in temperament, having brown or black hair and eyes and round heads. The free or dominant class of Gauls belonged to the former race, which was evidently an intrusive one. The inhabitants of the British Islands seem to have been composed of the same two races, arid to have spoken the same language as those of GauL
Slavonic and Lithuanic tongues) must have existed at an early period in the Celtic language, for the original stem has produced two branches in the British Islands which arc wider apart than those of the Teutonic stem, and, according to Zeuss, less widely separated than the two branches of
the Windic stem. These branches we shall call, following
