always be the external universe? To this Dr. Clarke replies—1. Negatively: that the universe is a contingent existence; that is, we can conceive it to have existed differently, or not to have existed at all. 2. Positively: that there are some things which we cannot think of as not existing. Such are time and space. But time and space are qualities, and qualities imply the existence of a substance to which they belong. And as time and space are infinite, the substance to which they belong must be infinite also; and this infinite substance is God. The germ of this argument is to be found in the scholium of Sir Isaac Newton—"Deus non est duratio vel spatium, sed durat et adest." Time and space are constituted by the existence of God. Similar reasoning had been employed by Cudworth. The validity of it was disputed by Leibnitz, who maintained that time is merely the order of things successive, and space is the order of things co-existing. The reasoning is accepted by Butler, Price, and Stewart, while it is rejected by Brown, Brougham, and Chalmers.—W. F.
CLARKE, Stephen, was a teacher of music, and organist of the episcopal chapel in the Cowgate, Edinburgh. He assisted Burns and Johnson in the production of the "Scottish Musical Museum," by harmonizing a number of the airs. He survived Burns little more than twelve months, having died at Edinburgh on the 6th of August, 1797. He was the composer of many airs of considerable merit, and after his death his son and successor, William Clarke, appears to have rendered Johnson the like service in harmonizing the airs for the concluding volume of the Museum. The latter died about the year 1820.—E. F. R.
CLARKE, William, a learned English divine and antiquary, rector of Buxted in Sussex, was born in Shropshire in 1696, and died in 1771. His principal work, in which he was assisted by Bowyer, is entitled "The Connexion of the Roman, Saxon, and English Coins," &c. It is highly praised by Pinkerton, and M'Culloch refers to it as containing a very good account of the ancient trade of the Black Sea. His son Edward, also rector of Buxted, born in 1730, published on his return from Madrid, where he had been chaplain to the embassy (1760-62), "Letters concerning the Spanish Nation," &c.—J. S., G.
CLARK, William, an American explorer, was born in Virginia, August 1, 1770, and went with his father to Kentucky in 1784. In 1803 the government of the United States organized an expedition to explore the vast region acquired by their recent purchase of Louisiana; and President Jefferson offered Clark the rank of captain of engineers, and the joint command of the party with Captain Merriwether Lewis. The company left St. Louis in March, 1804; ascended the Missouri to its source; crossed the Rocky Mountains; struck one of the upper branches of the Oregon or Columbia, and descended that river to the Pacific ocean. They returned in the autumn of 1806; having performed the most extensive and important exploration ever undertaken by the American government. Clark kept the journal which was published in 1814, in two volumes octavo. In 1813, though he had twice refused the appointment, he was made governor of the territory and superintendent of Indian affairs, which two offices he held till Missouri was admitted into the union as an independent state in 1820. He died in 1838.—F. B.
CLARKSON, David, an eminent nonconformist divine, born at Bradford in Yorkshire in 1622; died in 1686. He studied at Clarehall, Cambridge, and became fellow of his college. Tillotson, who was his pupil, succeeded him in his fellowship in 1651. He was ejected for nonconformity from the living of Mortlake in Surrey in 1662. In 1683, having for a year officiated as colleague to Dr. Owen, he succeeded that eminent divine. Of Clarkson's published discourses, the most remarkable are—"Primitive Episcopacy," 1680; "No Evidence of Diocesan Episcopacy in Primitive Times," 1681, in answer to Stillingfleet; and "Discourse of Liturgies," 1689.—J. S., G.
CLARKSON, Thomas, born at Wisbeach in Cambridgeshire, in 1760, one of the earliest and most devoted advocates of the abolition of the slave trade. He was first educated by his father, who was a clergyman and master of the free grammar school in his native town. He afterwards went to St. Paul's school, London, and completed his studies at St. John's college, Cambridge. In 1784 he gained the prize for a Latin dissertation, and the following year entered with scholastic ardour as a competitor for a similar honour. The subject announced for the thesis by the Rev. Dr. Peckard, vice-chancellor of the university, was "Anne liceat invitos in servitutem dare?" (Is it lawful to make slaves of others against their will?) In the course of his researches and investigations for his essay, his literary ambition gave place to righteous indignation at the enormities connected with slavery and the slave-trade, which furnished him with such cogent arguments in answer to the proposition, that he won the prize; and his mind was so thoroughly roused to the importance of the subject, that he translated his essay into English, and resolved to devote himself to the redress of African wrongs. He gave up his design of entering the church, for which he had taken deacon's orders, and may be said to have chosen antislavery for his profession, as the advocacy of that cause became the chief work of his life. The publication of his essay led to his introduction to Mr. Granville Sharpe, the first public assertor of the rights of negroes in England; and to Mr. William Dillwyn, Mr. Richard Phillips, and other members of the Society of Friends in London, who gladly associated with him in his abolition efforts. From the time of William Penn, who in 1688 denounced the slave-trade, this sect had protested against slavery; and at their yearly meeting in 1760, in addition to the "severe censures" passed in former years on "the cruel and unjust practice of importing negroes," they resolved to disown as members of their society "all who participated in any way in that guilty traffic." In 1787 the first "committee for effecting the abolition of the slave-trade" was instituted by Mr. Clarkson and his friends. They deemed it wise to limit their efforts to the suppression of the slave-trade at first, the extinction of slavery appearing at that time an unattainable object. Universally diffused as information on this subject afterwards became, and now stands recorded in history, it had at that period no existence in literature, and no place in the public mind. Mr. Clarkson visited the principal ports in the kingdom, and, with the utmost industry and perseverance, collected evidence from the customhouses, on board slave-ships, and from documents concerning West India property. Obtaining an introduction to Mr. Wilberforce, who, as member for Yorkshire and the intimate friend of Mr. Pitt, as well as from his high personal character, held an influential position, Mr. Clarkson induced him to bring the question before parliament, where a party in its favour was gradually formed. Meantime the committee held meetings, and published the results of their researches. In 1788 several petitions were presented to the house of commons in favour of the abolition of the slave-trade, and the question was brought forward, but postponed for further inquiry. In 1789 Mr. Wilberforce introduced the subject, the materials being furnished him by Mr. Clarkson; but the measure was again put off; and year after year a succession of divisions and defeats took place, until, after a struggle of more than twenty years, the "bill for the abolition of the slave-trade" passed the house of commons in March, 1807. Mr. Clarkson's efforts, as prompter and assistant to Wilberforce and his party, never relaxed during this period, and with characteristic ardour he visited Paris, after the breaking out of the Revolution of 1789, to supply Mirabeau with matter for his speeches in the national convention against the slave-trade. He was an active member of the "African institution," which was established in 1807 to promote civilization in Africa, and took part in the contest which terminated, in 1833, with the passage of the act for the "abolition of British colonial slavery." In 1838 the corporation of London granted Mr. Clarkson the freedom of the city, as an acknowledgment of his services as the originator of the great antislavery struggle, and placed his bust in the Guildhall. In his declining years he lost his sight from cataract, but underwent an operation that restored it. He attended the antislavery convention at Exeter Hall in 1840. His last public act was to present a petition to the house of lords against slave-grown sugar. In addition to numerous pamphlets on the subject, he published "A History of the Abolition of the Slave-Trade," 2 vols., London, 1808; "A Portraiture of Quakerism," 3 vols., London, 1806; and other works. His style is diffuse, and he is less remarkable as a writer than as the patriarch of the antislavery cause. He possessed a happy, contented disposition, and passed the last years of his life in his domestic circle at his patrimonial seat, Playford-hall, Suffolk, where he died in 1846, aged eighty-six years.—R. M., S.
CLAUBERG, Johann, one of the clearest and most methodical expositors of the Cartesian philosophy, was born at Solingen in Westphalia in 1622; taught philosophy and theology at Herborn, and afterwards at Duisburg, and died in 1665. There is an edition of his works with the date 1699.
CLAUDE, Bishop of Turin. See Claudius.
