ing the relations of the "active" and "passive" intellect. It were out of place in a work like this—which is not a history of philosophy—to detail the special views of Averrhoès, as to either of these problems; especially as his speculations have not affected any system of modern thought. The intelligent student will readily apprehend that a disposition to excess, might—in the discussion of such questions—lead to absolute materialism on the one hand, or to absolute pantheism on the other. Averrhoès probably did not find the true mean; but that he was not far from it is sufficiently proved by the fact, that the most opposite sects have equally abused him.—Without doubt he was a man of very great sagacity, as well as power. For a time the fame of Averrhoès was almost equivalent to the fame of Aristotle. With a large class of schoolmen and ecclesiastics, his name for several centuries was the name of Antichrist; while others followed him with a compensating devotion. It is a stupendous thing—the apparition of a mighty mind! This Stagyrite—in how many aspects do we see him—how often does he or his shadow appear and reappear in history! If a true history of Aristotle shall ever be written—one that shall tell what the intellect bearing that name has accomplished towards the modification of our mundane course of thought—Averrhoès, as one of the most potent of his imperfect representatives, must have for himself a chapter in that history.—Like most learned Arabians, Averrhoès was great as a physician.—See as to details the very interesting volume of Renan, "Averrhoès et l'Averrhöisme."—J. P. N.
AVERSA, Tommaso, an Italian poet, born at Amistrato in Sicily. Besides a translation into Sicilian rhyme of Virgil's Æneid, he wrote a number of tragedies and comedies now little known. Died in 1663.
AVERY, John, an organ-builder of considerable eminence, who flourished in England between the years 1775 and 1808. His principal organs were St. Stephen's, Coleman-street, city, London, 1775; Croydon church, Surrey, 1794; Winchester cathedral, 1799; Christ church, Bath, 1800; St. Margaret's, Westminster, 1804; king's College chapel, Cambridge, 1804; Seven Oaks' church, Kent, 1798; Carlisle cathedral, 1800. He died 13th November, 1808.—(Rimbault and Hopkins' Hist. of the Organ.)—E. F. R.
AVESBURY, Robert, register of the Archiepiscopal court of Canterbury, died in 1356. The date of his birth is uncertain. He was the author of a history of the reign of Edward III. as far as that date, which was first published by Thomas Hearne at Oxford, 1720.
AVESNE, François d', a French fanatic, born at Fleurance in the Lower Armagnac, died about the year 1662. He was a disciple of Simon Morin, and published libellous letters and pamphlets against the king and Cardinal Mazarin, in which he claimed for himself all the "illumination" of his master.
AVIANI, an Italian artist of superior merit. He flourished at Vicenza about the year 1630, and painted architecture, landscape, and marine pieces. Born during the lifetime of Palladio, or while his school still flourished, and residing in a city abounding in good specimens of architectural taste, he "produced," says Lanzi, "pictures of so pleasing a character, filled with little figures by Carpioni under his direction, that it is surprising he did not attain equal celebrity with Viviano and other first-rate artists." Views by Aviani are to be found in the Foresteria, or Stranger's Lodge of the Padri Serviti in Vicenza, in the celebrated Rotunda of Palladio, and in other private and public collections of his native town.—A. M.
AVIANUS, Flavius, a Latin poet, supposed to have lived about the year 160. He wrote forty-two fables in elegiac verse, which he dedicated to one Theodosius, probably Macrobius Theodosius, a grammarian. They have been frequently reprinted.
AVICEBRON; otherwise SOLOMON IBN GABIROL. The identity of the persons supposed to be indicated by these two names, was not established until quite recently. Ibn Gabirol of Malaga, who lived during the latter half of the eleventh century, was held in repute, in so far, as a philosopher, but chiefly as a religious poet. The principal work of a writer whom they named Avicebron, made, on its translation into Latin, a marked sensation among the schoolmen of the thirteenth century. Albertus Magnus, Aquinas, and other Christian philosophers, eagerly quote and comment on a treatise "Fons Vitæ;" but they give no personal details concerning Avicebron—not even as to the age or place in which he lived. It was reserved for M. Munk of the Royal Library of Paris, to demonstrate that Avicebron and Solomon Ibn Gabirol are one; and so to give the Mekor Hayyim (Fons Vitæ) the right to precedence in that history of philosophy in Andalusia, which brilliantly terminated the intellectual efforts of the Semitic races in southern Spain. Avicebron must thus have preceded Avempace or Ibn Badja, the earliest of the illustrious Arabians whose philosophic researches culminated in Averrhoès. But although preceding them, he cannot be considered as their teacher. So strong was the line dividing at that time the adherents of different creeds, that probably they knew nothing of Gabirol; assuredly they have never quoted him. Neither is he entitled to the appellation of a Jewish philosopher in any ordinary sense; for his influence over the beliefs and speculations of his co-religonists seems as insignificant as that of Averrhoès over the Moslems. His thoughts, however, entered as an element into the mass of inquiry forming the science of the middle ages; and he farther manifests the nature of the form that must be imposed on the peripatetic philosophy, ere that philosophy could command the allegiance of a Jew. What has been remarked in our sketch of Averrhoès may be repeated emphatically here:—Philosophy, in the form of science, has never been acceptable to any Semitic people. Religion with the Jews was ever essentially a Belief, not a Philosophy; a religion summed up in the lofty personal monotheism of Genesis, and an unwavering conviction in the free-will and consequent responsibility of man. Speculation as to the reconcilement and relations of these,—still more as to the entire relations between the infinite and the finite, were foreign to Hebrew genius; and only in two of the ancient Jewish books that survive, has either prophet or lawgiver condescended to scientific reasoning. In Job and Ecclesiastes we have discussion—not without its sharpness; but it is limited to points in the theory of practical morals, nor do even these somewhat exceptional writings manifest the faintest trace of anxiety regarding such ultimate problems as have stirred the intellect of all Indo-European nations. The conflict of the two tendencies now indicated, is the key to the history of Jewish philosophy as such, or rather to the position of distinguished Jews; nor may the searching inquirer comprehend, unless by its light, more modern phenomena indicating the same conflict. When the Jews ceased to live as an isolated nation, and had in so far been dispersed through the allurements of commerce, contact with Greeks and Persians brought their best thinkers into clear presence of a course of speculation previously wholly foreign to them. Yet the influence of Alexandria could produce only a Philo. At a still more recent period, the barren formality of a textual criticism, and the dulness of endless disputation concerning the authority of tradition which divided and agitated the Karaïtes and Rabbanites, were invaded by the bold speculations of Saadia Ben-Joseph al-Fazzoumi, the famous Egyptian Talmudist, born in the year 892. Some of Saadia's opinions are so adventurous, especially regarding the narratives in the book of Job, that, while perusing them, one might fancy one'sself reading some modern critical work. Nevertheless, although asserting prerogatives for Reason, and denying that any doctrine can be consolidated or defended unless it is understood, he claims for philosophy nothing farther than a secondary rank,—that, viz., of rational expounder and advocate of the religious creed of Judaism. Avicebron followed Saadia after the interval of nearly a century. By this late time the philosophical writings of the Arabians had found their way to Spain, and begun to stir the thoughtful in Andalusia; and the community of Jews had founded a new school in Cordova, having first thrown off allegiance to the Babylonian academy at Sora. Profiting by a conjuncture so auspicious, Ibn Gabirol penetrated into regions of speculation never before explored by any Jew; and through effect of the originality and independence of his genius, he rose high above all his co-religionists in Spain. In such circumstances we might expect, indeed, to find him much more influenced than his predecessors by the spirit of the Lycæum; but it does surprise one that Avicebron could plunge at once into the midst of the most arduous problems originated by Aristotle, and that the light he threw on them so largely influenced the greatest schoolmen of two centuries later. Aquinas asserts, for instance, that this Jew was the first in modern times, who made the clear distinction between Matter and Form, and applied that distinction in solution of the mystery of a Finite Creation. "Quidam dicunt," he tells us, "quod anima et omnino omnis substantia præter Deum est composita ex materia et forma. Cujus quidem positionis primus auctor invenitur Avicebron, auctor libri, Fontis Vitæ." By matter or substance, is meant something
