Afghanistan loaded with spoils. In 1759 Ahmed undertook another expedition to Hindostan, mainly to oppose the growing power of the Mahrattas, already most formidable. He defeated them at Badli, near Delhi, but they soon collected a new and far more powerful army, under the command of the heir-apparent of their country. In 1761, 7th January, the Afghans gained a complete victory in the memorable battle of Paniput. Ahmed, instead of aiming at establishing for himself an empire in India, judiciously led back his triumphant army to Kabul. After repeated hostilities with the Sikhs, he allowed them to take permanent possession of the Punjab. He wisely contented himself with maintaining his authority throughout his extensive dominions to the west of the Indus. In the spring of 1773, he was obliged, by the impaired state of his health, to repair to the hills of Toba. He died at Murgha in June, 1773, leaving his dominions to his son, Timur Shah. The empire he founded began to decline under his son, and under his grandsons it disappeared.—E. M.
AHRENS, Fl., recently professor of philosophy and of the Laws of Nations in the university of Brussels. A clear and most instructive writer, whose merits are very inadequately known in England. Adopting the metaphysical system of Kraŭse, the principle of which has recently been advocated in England by Mr. Morell, Ahrens exposed it in his valuable "Cours de Philosophie;" but his great and most compact work is a volume, entitled "Cours de Droit Naturel," of which we feel entitled to say, that it takes rank with the best treatises produced in modern times, on the foundations of public and national Morals. Ahrens' style is as clear as his thought is accurate and profound. An interesting commentary on the system adopted by Ahrens and Kraŭse has recently been produced by M. Tiberghein.—J. P. N.
AHUITZOL, the eighth Aztec emperor, was elected in 1477, on the death of Anajacath. He extended the boundaries of the Mexican empire, adorned the capital, and was a patron of the useful arts. This monarch is remembered for his attempts to abolish sacrifices. He was succeeded by Montezuma II., during whose reign Mexico was conquered by the Spaniards.
AI´BEK, Azed-Eddyn, the first sultan of Egypt, of the dynasty of Baharite Mamelukes; died April 10, 1257. Having been brought to Egypt in his youth as a slave, his courage soon raised him to a high military rank, under Touran Shah, who reigned during the invasion of the crusaders under St. Louis of France. Aibek took part in the sanguinary conflicts around the walls of Damietta. After Louis had been taken prisoner, a mutiny raised Aibek to the rank of atabek, or commander-in-chief, Touran Shah being succeeded by Chadjr-Eddour. He successfully defended Louis and the other French prisoners from the violence of his followers, and set them at liberty, on payment of 200,000 livres as a ransom. After a variety of intrigues, plots, and revolutions, he became undisputed sovereign of Egypt, a.d. 1254, but died shortly after by the hand of an assassin. Aibek was a patron of learning, and founded a magnificent college at Old Cairo, on the banks of the Nile. He was succeeded by his son Ali, surnamed Melik-al-Mansour, who, after a short reign, was deposed by the Mameluke Keouthuz.—J. W. S.
AICARDO, John, an Italian architect, who constructed various admired public works at Genoa, was born at Cuneo in Piedmont, about the end of the 16th century, and died in 1650.
AICHER, P. Otto, a Benedictine of Salzburg, celebrated as an eloquent professor of rhetoric, poetry, and history, and author of various treatises, antiquarian and historical. Died in 1705.
AIDAN, a king of the Daldriadic Scots, who reigned in the sixth century. Bede tells us that, in 603, he invaded the territory of Edilfrid, king of the Northumbrians, but was defeated. He died two years later, and was buried at Kilcheran in Kintyre.
AIDAN, St., abbot or bishop of Lindisfarne, was originally a monk of Iona, where Oswald, king of Northumbria, had been educated. When Oswald came to the throne, finding that his subjects had returned to Paganism, he sent to Iona for some one to teach them Christianity. Corman was sent, an austere, morose man, who had but little success, and soon returned to tell his brothers that the task was hopeless. Aidan chided him for not dealing kindly enough with the people; his speech pleased the monks, and they asked him to undertake the mission. He accepted, and soon his gentleness won the rough Northumbrians, and the whole country embraced the faith he taught. He was assisted in his work by Oswald, who acted as his interpreter. He died, according to Bede, August 31, 651. Aidan was the founder of the monastery of Lindisfarne, and is reckoned the first in the line of bishops who take their title from Durham. He is also remembered for his adherence to the ancient usage of the British and Irish churches, in the dispute about the proper season for the observance of Easter.—J. B.
AIDEN, a king of Ireland, who succeeded Donchad in the year 797. The events of his reign are of serious importance, though little can be recorded of his personal history. During his reign, numerous armies of Danes landed on the coasts of Ireland upon several occasions, and though more than once repulsed, they committed terrible devastations and slaughter. After a troubled reign of twenty-two years, Aiden was slain in the battle of Da Fearta by Muolcanaigh.—(Wills.)—J. F. W.
AIGNAN, Étienne, a French writer and academician, author of a poetic version of the Iliad, and of numerous treatises in prose, among which are "A History of Trial by Jury;" "State of the Protestants in France;" "Justice and Police," &c., was born at Beaugency-sur-Loire in 1773, and died in 1824. Doomed, during the Reign of Terror, for his humanity, and moderate though republican sentiments, he was saved from the guillotine by the death of Robespierre.—E. M.
AIGREAUX, Robert, and Antoine Lechevalier, two brothers, joint authors of translations of Virgil and Horace, and of various original poems, were born in Normandy about the middle, and died about the end, of the sixteenth century.
AIGUEBERRE or AIGUERERT, Jean Dumas d', a member of the parliament of Toulouse, author of several dramatic pieces, the principal of which is a sort of tripartite opera, consisting of a tragedy, "Polyzena;" a comedy, "The Miser in Love;" and a heroic pastoral, "Pan and Doris;" born in 1692, died 1755.
AIGUILLON, Armand Vignerot du Plessis Richelieu, Duc d', great grand-nephew of Cardinal Richelieu, and foreign minister of France during the last three years of the reign of Louis XV., 1771-4, was born in 1720. Though polished in his manners, and not deficient in shrewdness and vigour, he was destitute of all the qualities that constitute the able or the upright statesman; and was raised to his high position, and maintained in power, solely by the combined court influence of courtesans and jesuits. The means employed for his elevation, and the measures of his inglorious ministry, greatly contributed to undermine the throne, and prepare the popular enthusiasm of 1788, and the horrors of 1793. During the Seven Years' War, Aiguillon was commander of the forces in Brittany, and, by his tyranny and iniquities, had rendered himself intensely unpopular. An illustrious patriot, M. de la Chalotais, procureur-general in the parliament (or judicature) of Rennes, incurred his implacable resentment by denouncing his delinquencies, and still more by indulging in witty allusions to his alleged cowardice. Aiguillon formally accused him of treason, and by false testimony procured a sentence of death against the innocent man. Chalotais was afterwards liberated through the intrepidity of the parliament of Rennes, who detected and exposed the whole drama of iniquity. Aiguillon was arraigned before the parliament of Paris; the proceedings excited a deep interest all over France, and the whole legal profession of the kingdom manifested a determination that justice should be done. The feeble and debauched monarch, swayed by the artifices of his mistress in concert with priestly influence, saved Aiguillon from merited punishment, by destroying the independence of the judicature, and stripping the parliaments of those time-hallowed privileges which, under the most absolute sovereigns, had served as a constitutional check on the royal authority. The last remnant of liberty being thus crushed, Aiguillon was, in defiance of public opinion, appointed minister of foreign affairs. Immediately on the accession of Louis XVI. he was ignominiously dismissed from office, and spent the rest of his life at a distance from Paris, generally despised and detested. Died in 1780.—E. M.
AIGUILLON, Armand de Vignerot du Plessis Richelieu, Duc d', son of the preceding, was born about 1750. From resentment against Louis XVI. for the dismissal of his father, he gave his ardent adherence to the Revolution; became a member of the constituent assembly, where he frequently spoke with ability, though with violence; renounced his titles and privileges of nobility; connected himself with the notorious duke of Orleans; succeeded Custines in the command of the forces stationed at the passes of Poventruy; escaped to London, on ascertaining that he had been doomed by the dominant party at Paris; and, on being very ill received by the royalist refugees, re-
