received the sparingly bestowed honour of the corresponding membership of the Royal Academy of Medicine in France. A complete list of his writings, thirty-one in number, is given in the ninth volume of the Dublin Quarterly Journal of Medical Science. Mr. Carmichael's active and useful career was, on the 8th of June, 1849, brought to a sudden and melancholy close by drowning in a rapid stream, while endeavouring to cross on horseback the Strand, in the neighbourhood of Dublin. The bequests made by his will to the medical institutions of Dublin were worthy of his generous nature.—W. D. M.
CARMICHAEL, William, an American diplomatist of the revolutionary epoch, was a native of Maryland, of Scotch extraction. In 1775 he was in England, and went to Paris, on his way Rome, with despatches from Arthur Lee. Being detained by sickness, he aided Silas Deane in his official correspondence, and went to Berlin to give information to the king of Prussia respecting American commerce. He returned to America in May, 1788, and soon afterwards was made a delegate from Maryland to congress, where he seems to have borne testimony against Deane. In 1779 congress appointed him secretary of ligation to Mr. Jay in his mission to Spain. He went to Madrid in this capacity, and when Mr. Jay left in June, 1782, he remained as chargé d'affaires. Congress soon appointed him to this office, and he remained in it at Madrid for several years. Carmichael returned to the United States, and died early in 1795.—F. B.
CARMIGNANI, Giovanni Alessandro, was born at Pisa in 1768, and educated at the college of Arezzo, where he obtained the degree of LL.D. He was called to the bar at Florence, and in 1799 appointed to a magistracy at San Minato. Selected by the government of Tuscany for the post of professor of jurisprudence in the university of Pisa, he accepted the appointment, but under protest that he would teach from the chair his views of the inutility, injustice, and inhumanity of capital punishments. The rest of his life was devoted to the task of rescuing human victims from the hand of the executioner, and he was often rewarded by success. In his leisure hours he occupied himself with literature, and his comments on the Teatro d'Alfieri are of high merit. He died in his native city in 1847.—A. C. M.
CARMONTELLE: born at Paris in 1717. He merits a place amongst literary celebrities, for being the inventor of that charming entertainment which the French call "Proverbe." It is a drama which, depending altogether on dialogue, without aid of scenery or decoration, may be acted in a drawing-room, or got up by a party enjoying a day in the country. Carmontelle obtained a place in the household of the duke of Orleans, which he lost by the Revolution. He died in 1806.—J. F. C.
CARNE, John, the author of several pleasant volumes of travel, particularly "Letters from the East," and "Letters from Switzerland;" died at Penzance, in his fifty-fifth year, in 1844. Born in affluent circumstances, he cultivated literature merely as a recreation, and probably was as much astonished as delighted at the success of his productions. The latter part of his life was spent at Penzance, where, although accustomed to the pleasures of London literary society, he lived in kindly and contented intercourse with his rustic neighbours.—J. S., G.
* CARNÉ, Louis Marcien, Comte de, a French publicist and politician, was born at Quimper in 1804 of an ancient and distinguished family. After passing through the offices of attaché and ambassador's secretary, he became a member of the general council of Finisterre in 1833. and a deputy in 1839. In 1845 he supplanted M. Drouyn-de-Lhuys in the ministry of foreign affairs, and held this office till the revolution in 1848. He is the author of numerous articles in the Revue des Deux Mondes and other periodicals, and of sundry political works.—J. D. E.
CARNEADES, a Greek philosopher, famous as the founder of the Third or New Academy, was an African, a native of Cyrene, and was born about 213 b.c. In company with Critolaus and Diogenes, he was sent by the Athenians to Rome in 155 to complain of the injustice of a fine which, under the authority of the Romans, had been imposed upon Athens by the Sicyonians for having laid waste Oropus, a town in Bœotia. Each of the three ambassadors excited the attention of the learned men of Rome by some display of learning or eloquence, and particularly Carneades, who harangued in praise of justice before Galba and Cato the censor, with such subtlety of reasoning and copiousness of diction, that when on the day following he undertook to refute all his own arguments, Cato, in dread of the effect such displays of tongue-fence might have upon the youth of the capital, in diverting them from the pursuit of arms to that of Grecian learning, abruptly dismissed the three Athenians. Carneades died in 129. The leading doctrine of the New Academy was that neither our senses nor our understanding supply us with sure criteria of truth. It was also distinguished by its opposition to the tenets of the stoics.—J. S., G.
CARNEAU, Etienne, born at Chartres in the beginning of the seventeenth century, and died in 1671. He first studied jurisprudence under the care of his father, a distinguished avocat, then devoted himself to polite literature. In 1630 he joined the Celestines, and died in their monastery at Paris. Carneau amused himself by writing verse, and published among other volumes one which has been often reprinted, and which still has some interest, "L'Economie du Petit Monde." The "Petit Monde" was in the language of the alchymists, the microcosmos, or man. He translated into verse some tracts of St. Augustine.
CARNEGIE, Sir Robert, a Scottish lawyer and statesman, appointed in 1547 a lord of session. His father, John de Carnegy, had fallen at Flodden. Sir Robert attached himself to the regent, Arran, in whose service he visited England and France. After the assumption of the regency by the queen dowager, Carnegie was clerk to the treasurer of Scotland, and one of the commission for concluding peace with England. At the Reformation he treated with the lords of the congregation in name of the regent, but having gone over to their party he was sent as their ambassador to France and England. He died in 1556, leaving a work on Scots law named "Carnegie's Book."—J. B.
CARNOT, Joseph François Claude, an eminent French criminal lawyer, born at Nolai, department of Côte-d'Or, 22d May, 1752; died in 1835.—W. J. M. R.
* CARNOT, Lazare-Hippolyte, son of the illustrious member of convention, born at St. Omer in 1801. The associate of his great father in his exile—in Belgium, Bavaria, Poland, and various parts of Germany, he returned to France in 1823, and devoted himself to the bar. Led away, like many other of the young sanguine and intelligent spirits of Paris in those days, Carnot was deluded by the dreams of St. Simon, and united himself closely to Enfantin. Repelled, however, by the excesses of this enthusiast in reference to the question of marriage, Carnot, along with Jean Reynaud, Leroux, and others, unfurled a flag of his own; and propagated more chastened ideas through the columns of the Globe. He has never quite escaped from the impressions ruling this early period of his life; but he has gained sufficient wisdom to know that the statesman and the politician must, as such, stand apart at present from all these theories,—that the thing to be asked for is simple liberty to test them through private enterprises and organizations. Carnot was elected deputy in 1839, 1842, and 1846, and took his place prominently among the Mountain, or the party of radical opposition. On the occurrence of the revolution of 1848, the portfolio of the ministry of public instruction was confided to him; and it cannot be denied, that, during his brief tenure of office—aided by his friends, Reynaud, Renouvier, &c.—he acted with an intelligence and good faith not unworthy of his descent. He fell chiefly through the imprudence of Renouvier, with whom Socialism was still all in all—being replaced by Vaulabelle. He was subsequently elected to the constituent assembly for the department of the Seine by 200,000 suffrages; but notwithstanding his strongly-pronounced republicanism, he had the manliness to concur in the vote that "the General Cavaignac had deserved well of his country." After the coup d'êtat, three republicans, Cavaignac, Carnot, and Henon, were returned to the legislative assembly. Their seats were vacated on their refusal to take the required oath. Carnot was again returned in 1857 for one of the districts of Paris, but he persisted in his refusal to acknowledge the legitimacy of the power of Louis-Napoleon. He now pursues in Paris important literary labours, being engaged on a History of Germany during the War of Liberation, and the Memoirs of his Father. He has already written and published much—for instance, his curious "Memoires de Bertrand Barrere," in 4 vols., and of "Henri Gregoire, Bishop of Blois." There is also an interesting volume by him—"Quelques reflexions sur la domesticité."—J. P. N.
CARNOT, Lazare-Nicolas-Marguerite, a mathematician, man of letters, engineer, and military administrator of the highest order, and the most able, honest, and brave of French
