drawings of the British museum. For thirty years Mrs. Carpenter has been a constant contributor to the exhibitions of the Royal Academy and British Institution. Firmness of touch and fineness of colour are the remarkable qualities of her art. She contributed to the General Exhibition of 1855 a portrait of an aged woman, which excited attention. The sister of Mrs. Carpenter married in 1822 the late William Collins, R.A.—W. T.
CARPENTER, Nathaniel, an English divine, born in 1588 at North-Lew in Devonshire, where his father, John Carpenter, the author of some sermons well known in their day, was rector. He was appointed by Archbishop Usher one of his chaplains in Dublin, and was intrusted with the education of a number of sons of Roman catholics, who, as king's wards, were to be brought up in the protestant faith. He seems to have risen to the dignity of dean, and died in Dublin about 1625 or 1638. He published "Philosophia libera, triplici exercitationum decade proposita," 1621—one of the earliest attacks on the Aristotelian philosophy; "Geography," in two books, 1625; and a number of sermons bearing on political subjects.—J. B.
CARPENTER, Richard, an English divine and poet of the seventeenth century, was a student of Cambridge, but having gone to study abroad, he became a Roman catholic. Entering the Benedictine order, he came to England to proselytize; but while there he returned to the protestant faith, and became rector of Poling in Sussex. At the time of the civil war he went to Paris, became again a Roman catholic; returned once more to England, and once more left the bosom of mother church, only, however, to return a third time and to die in her communion. He published a number of works, of which only two are worthy of note—a treatise, entitled "Experience, History, and Divinity," 1642; and a comedy, published after the Restoration, named "The Pragmatical Jesuit."—J. B.
* CARPENTER, William Benjamin, M.D., one of the most distinguished physiologists and writers on physiology of the present day. He is the son of the late Dr. Lant Carpenter of Bristol. On leaving school he was destined for the career of a civil engineer, and commenced a course of study accordingly. His tastes, however, led him ultimately to choose the medical profession, and he entered at University College about the year 1833, where, as a student, he was distinguished for his accurate knowledge, and for the elegance of his written compositions. He passed his examination at the College of Surgeons, and the Society of Apothecaries, in 1835, and afterwards pursued his studies at Edinburgh, where his capacity for original thought and dealing with the most profound physiological discussions became apparent. One of his earliest papers on the subject of physiology was published in the Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal (No. 132), entitled "On the Voluntary and Instinctive Actions of Living Beings." In this paper may be discovered the germs of those views he has so fully developed in his various works on physiology. He graduated at Edinburgh in 1839, but not until he had published the three following papers—"On the Unity of Function in Organized Beings;" "On the Differences of the Laws Regulating Vital and Physical Phenomena;" "Dissertation on the Physiological Inferences to be deduced from the Structure of the Nervous System in the invertebrate class of Animals." This paper was published in Edinburgh in 1838, and translated in Muller's Archio for 1840. In these papers he laid the foundation of those principles which he afterwards developed more fully in an independent work, entitled "Principles of General and Comparative Physiology," 1839. This was one of the first works in our language, giving a general view of the science of life, and pointing out the relation of physical laws to vital phenomena. It was a very remarkable production for so young a man, and soon gained for Dr. Carpenter the recognition of physiologists, and the position amongst them which he so well deserved. A second edition appeared in 1841. He now settled at Bristol, with the intention of practising his profession, and was appointed lecturer on medical jurisprudence in the medical school of that city. The practice of his profession was, however, less in accordance with his tastes than the pursuit of those studies by which alone the science of medicine can be advanced. With an almost unrivalled facility of acquiring and communicating knowledge, it is not to be wondered at that he found it more agreeable to write books on science than to submit to the drudgery of medical practice. In 1843 and subsequent years he wrote the "Popular Cyclopedia of Science," embracing the subjects of mechanics, vegetable physiology and botany, animal physiology and zoology. These works were professedly only compilations; but they contain many of the author's original views, and are written in a very agreeable style. In 1846 Dr. Carpenter published a work on the "Principles of Human Physiology," which reached a fourth edition in 1853. It may be truly said that this is the best work extant on the subject, and has done much to establish the author's reputation as a great physiologist. Whilst the "Human Physiology" was passing through its several editions, the "Principles of Comparative and General Physiology" reached a third edition, thus forming a companion volume. It was, however, thought desirable to separate the general from the comparative physiology, and in 1854 a volume entitled the "Principles of Comparative Physiology" was published. This will be followed by the "Principles of General Physiology," in one volume. These three volumes will form a cyclopædia of biological science in themselves. This work indicates not only a vast amount of labour in its production, but a large extent of careful reading and research. Such works might well have occupied a lifetime, but Dr. Carpenter, with indefatigable industry, has been a constant contributor to the Cyclopedia of Anatomy and Physiology, where some of the most important articles are from his pen. In addition to the works above mentioned. Dr. Carpenter has published a "Manual of Human Physiology," for the use of students, which has gone through several editions. For many years he edited the British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical Review, and was for some time lecturer on general anatomy and physiology at the London Hospital school of medicine; and an examiner in physiology and comparative anatomy in the university of London. In 1856 he resigned these positions, on being elected registrar to the university of London, which office he now holds. He is also the professor of medical jurisprudence at University College. Dr. Carpenter has since published a work "On the Microscope, its Revelations and its Uses." It displays the same industry, accuracy, and impartiality, as his other writings, and undoubtedly deserves a high position amongst works devoted to an account of the uses and structure of this instrument. Dr. Carpenter has been for some time engaged in preparing a work for publication by the Ray Society, containing the results of his researches on the structure, functions, and general history of the family Foraminifera. In 1849 he gained a prize of one hundred guineas offered for the best essay on alcoholic liquors. His essay was published in 1850, under the title of the "Use and Abuse of Alcoholic Liquors." He advocates the principles of total abstinence, and has acquired great popularity among the friends of this system. Dr. Carpenter occupies the position of resident director at University Hall, an establishment built for the purpose of insuring a comfortable home and personal supervision to young men pursuing their studies at University College, chiefly connected with the Unitarian denomination.—E. L.
CARPENTIER, Pierre, a member of the Benedictine order of St. Maur, born on the 2nd February, 1697. He distinguished himself for the zeal with which he pursued his painstaking research into old MSS., following the footsteps of Ducange. The latter had in his Glossarium ad Scriptores mediæ et infimæ Latinitatis, gone through the corrupt Latin of the middle ages, but not so perfectly as not to leave room for the mighty erudition of Carpentier to correct errors and supply deficiencies. Ducange's glossary, as enlarged by Carpentier, is a most useful work of reference. He died in Paris, December, 1769.—J. F. C.
CARPI, Girolamo da. this artist was born at Ferrara in 1501. He was a pupil of Benvenuto Garofolo, and was accounted one of the most promising of his scholars. He went to Bologna and practised portrait painting, visiting subsequently Parma and Modena, and other cities of Italy. He was early imbued with a sense of reverence for the works of Correggio, and applied himself to the imitation of the graces of that master. He succeeded in this to the full. Many of his copies were accepted as the genuine original works. But he was not a skilful copyist only; his own unaided efforts brought him extraordinary commendation. His most celebrated works are his "Adoration of the Magi," and his "Madonna and Saints," at Bologna. He died in 1556.—W. T.
CARPI, Ugo da: this painter and engraver was born at Rome about 1486. To him is generally attributed the invention of that method of wood-engraving known as chiaro-oscuro, per-
