formed with three blocks of oak wood of different gradations of shadow. This manner of art was afterwards carried to perfection by Baldasarre Peruzzi and by Parmegiano. Carpi's works are chiefly copies of the works of Raffaelle, including the Cartoons. He died about 1530.—W. T.
CARPINI, John de Plano, a celebrated traveller, was born probably in the kingdom of Naples, early in the thirteenth century, and became a friar of the Franciscan order. One of six monks sent into Chinese Tartary in 1246, to negotiate on the part of Pope Innocent IV. with the reigning descendant of the Mongol conqueror, Jenghis Khan, he wrote an account of the journey and was the first to give Europeans any true idea of the country and customs of the dreaded Tartars. His book, or the substance of it, was inserted by Ramusio in his "Raccolta di Navigazioni e Viaggi," Venice, 1556, and from it copied by Hakluyt into his Navigations and Discoveries.—J. B.
CARPIONI, Giulio. This painter was born at Venice in 1611, and was a pupil of Alessandro Varotari, called Paduanino. He painted after the manner of Paolo Veronese. His paintings are principally of a small size. The subjects are often of a Bacchanalian character, and are remarkable for spirit of execution and beauty of colour. Considerable resemblance has been found in them to the works of Poussin. He also painted sacred subjects for the Venetian churches. His pictures are rare and highly valued. He died in 1674.—His son Carlo had some success as a portrait painter.—W. T.
CARPOCRATES, or CARPOCRAS, of Alexandria, a gnostic, founder of the sect of Carpocratians, lived in the reign of the Emperor Hadrian. Like the other gnostics, he maintained the existence of one Supreme Principle, and the formation of the universe by angels. Others of his tenets were that Jesus was but human, having been born in the ordinary course of nature of Joseph and Mary; and that although endowed, in consequence of what he had seen in a pre-existent state, with wonderful firmness and purity of mind, it was not impossible to equal and even excel him in these respects. The sect of the Carpocratians, according to some historians, was distinguished even from all other gnostic sects by the immoral practices of its members, who, deducing from their system the maxim that there is no distinction between right and wrong not depending merely on human opinion, and taking their lusts for monitors of the will of the Supreme—indulged in the most open and flagrant licentiousness. Other historians have defended the character of the sect, and treated this charge of systematic immorality as a calumny.—J. S., G.
CARPZOV, the name of a German family, various members of which have attained distinction as jurists or as theologians:—
Carpzov, Benedict, an eminent German jurisconsult, was born at Wittenberg in May 27, 1595, and died at Leipzig, August 30, 1666. Besides the chair of criminal law in the university of Leipzig, he held several high posts, and wrote a number of important works on jurisprudence. According to the spirit of his age, he was a great defender of the rack and of capital punishment. He is said to have pronounced more than twenty thousand sentences of death, and to have read his bible fifty-two times.—K. E.
Carpzov, Johann Gottlob, a German protestant theologian and orientalist, born at Dresden in 1679, became, after many years' service in the church and in various universities, first pastor of the cathedral of Lübeck, where he died in 1767. His works are numerous and display an uncommon acquaintance with biblical literature.—J. S., G.
CARR, John, an English architect, a native of Yorkshire, was born in 1721, and died in 1807. He belonged to the Anglo-Palladian school, and adorned his native county and the districts of England adjoining with many noble buildings. He realized a very large fortune.
CARR, Sir John, a writer of poetry and books of travel, was born in Devonshire in 1772, and died in 1832. His first publication was named "The Fury of Discord, a poem," 1803. Afterwards he wrote "The Stranger in France;" "The Sea-side Hero, a drama;" "A Northern Summer, or Travels Round the Baltic;" and "The Stranger in Ireland"—a work severely satirized by Edward Dubois in a volume entitled My Pocketbook, or Hints for a righte merrie and conceitede tour to be called the Stranger in Ireland. Sir John also published an account of travels in Scotland, in Spain, and in the Balearic Isles, and in 1809 a volume of poems.—J. B.
CARRA, Jean Louis, born in 1743 at Pont de Veyle. While a young man he entered the service of the hospodar of Moldavia, and on his return to France became employed in the king's library; but on the Revolution breaking out, entered into the ranks of the enemies of the court. Becoming a member of the Jacobin club, he was one of the loudest in calling for war against foreign despots; and for the sake of more efficaciously putting forward his ultra-democratic views, founded the Journal de L'Etat et du Citoyen. Elected a member of the convention, he took a leading part in denouncing military operations which did not seem vigorous enough, and on account of his presumed military knowledge and ardour, was sent to watch Dumouriez. The commission was fatal to himself; for, whether rightly or wrongly, he was in turn accused of having allowed himself to be captivated by that suspected general, and, at the instance of the terrible Murat, tried and executed, 31st October, 1793.—J. F. C.
CARRA-SAINT-CYR, Jean François, Count de, a French general, born in 1756, began his military career in the American war, and attained the rank of general of brigade in 1794. He contributed greatly to gain the battles of Marengo, Hohenlinden, and Eylau, and in 1805, as commander of the army of occupation in Naples, took 6000 prisoners after the retreat of the Archduke Charles. He was created baron of the empire in 1808, and was appointed governor of Dresden and of the Illyrian provinces. His abandonment of Hamburg in 1813 brought him into disgrace with Napoleon, but in 1814 the emperor again availed himself of St. Cyr's great military talents, and confided to him the defence of Bouchain, Valenciennes, and Condé. After the return of the Bourbons, St. Cyr was nominated by Louis XVIII. count and chevalier of the order of St. Louis, and appointed governor of French Guienne. He retired from active life in 1824, and died in 1834.—J. T.
CARRACCI: the name of three cousins, Lodovico, Agostino, and Annibale, celebrated painters of Bologna of the close of the sixteenth century, and the founders of the famous school of painting of that city, distinguished for its numerous able disciples:—
Carracci, Lodovico, the eldest, the actual founder of the school, was born at Bologna, April 21, 1555. He was educated in the school of the painter Prospero Fontana, and appeared so inapt in his art, that he acquired the nickname of il Bue (the Ox) among his fellow pupils. What he wanted in quickness, he made up for by his perseverance. After leaving Fontana, he studied with Passignano in Florence, and then successively visited Parma, Mantua, and Venice, to make himself acquainted with the works of the great masters of these celebrated cities of the arts—Correggio, Giulio Romano, and Titian. Having discovered distinct excellencies in these several masters, and exclusively possessed, it occurred to him that by combining their qualities, a really perfect style might be developed. This became the great effort and ambition of his after life, and was the origin of the designation eclectic, as given to the school and style of the Carracci, as explained in the sonnet afterwards written by Agostino:—
" Let him who a good painter would be
Acquire the drawing of Rome,
Venetian action, and Venetian shadow,
And the dignified colouring of Lombardy;
The terrible manner of Michelangelo,
Titian's truth and nature,
The sovereign purity of Correggio's style.
And the true symmetry of a Raphael;
The decorum and thoroughness of Tibaldi,
The invention of the learned Primaticcio,
And a little of Parmegiano's grace.
But without so much study and toil.
Let him only apply himself to imitate the works
Which our Niccolino has left us here."
This sonnet sufficiently explains the principles of the eclectic school, and shows their purely technical tendency.
Lodovico opened his school in 1589, his cousins, Agostino and Annibale, assisting him in his labours. They worked together until the year 1600, when it was carried on by Lodovico alone until his death, December, 13, 1619. Domenichino, Guido, Albani, and Lanfranco, were all pupils of this school, which produced a change in the principles of most other schools in Italy. General excellence of execution became the common aim—drawing, colouring, and chiaro-oscuro; the higher qualities of expression and composition being practically neglected in the eager pursuit after the more palpable and material qualities.
