own officers before M. Aurelius, who had marched against him, and who acted with great moderation in the affair, arrived in the East. The humane emperor lamented his death, and spared the lives of his family.—J. T.
Cassius Chærea. See Chærea.
Cassius Dion. See Dion.
CASSIUS, Andrew, a German physician of considerable celebrity, was born at Schleswig. His father, who was physician to the duke of Holstein, was the inventor of a kind of bezoard which he regarded as an infallible remedy against the plague. The younger Cassius was the discoverer of the chemical substance which forms the rose and violet colours on china, called from him the purple of cassius. It is prepared by adding the hydrochlorate of the protoxide of tin to a solution of the hydrochlorate of gold. Cassius wrote a treatise entitled "De triumviratu intestinali cum suis effervescentiis," which has been frequently reprinted; and another concerning the nature, production, and effects of gold, and its fitness for works of art, 8vo, Hamburg, 1685.—J. T.
CASSIVELAUNUS or CASSIBELAN, a British prince, who at the time of Julius Cæsar's invasion of England ruled over the country north of the Thames, and was chosen commander-in-chief of the confederated tribes which made common cause against the invaders. He had a high reputation for skill and bravery, and repeatedly baffled the attacks of the Roman legions, but was in the end deserted by his allies, and compelled to submit to the terms dictated by Cæsar.—J. T.
CASTAGNO, Andrea del, sometimes called the Infamous, was born at Castagno in the Mugello in Tuscany about 1406. His works are not numerous, and little is known of his education; but he is remarkable as being the first Florentine who adopted the new method of painting commonly called oil painting, but which is literally varnish painting, and it is very doubtful whether any oil whatever entered into the vehicle used by the Van Eycks and their school. (See Van Eyck.) It was the mode in which Andrea acquired this secret that procured him his surname of the Infamous after his death. About the year 1460 Domenico Veneziano, who had learnt the new method of Antonello da Messina, was engaged with Andrea del Castagno at Florence, to execute some paintings in the Portinari chapel in Santa Maria Nuova, when the greater sensation caused by the superior brilliance of the pictures of Domenico excited the envy of Andrea, who, according to Vasari, insinuated himself into the confidence of Domenico, acquired his secret from him, and then waylaying him on one occasion as he returned in the evening from his work in the Portinari chapel, struck him on the head with a piece of lead, and returned immediately to the chapel, whence he was called out shortly afterwards to his wounded friend Domenico, who died in the arms of his treacherous companion. This was about the year 1463. The story rests entirely on the recorded confession of Andrea; it was, however, never contradicted. The paintings of the Portinari chapel have perished. Up to this time the works of Andrea were exclusively in fresco and tempera, and the pictures by him preserved in the Florentine academy are in this method. He must have been nearly sixty years of age before he commenced oil painting. During his lifetime Andrea had acquired the name of Andrea degli Impiccati, or of the Hanged, instead of his original name del Castagno, from the pictures of the Pazzi and other conspirators concerned in the murder of Giuliano de' Medici, whom he represented in 1478 on the wall of the Podestà of Florence—a fresco which has long since perished. The conspirators were represented hanging with their heads downwards; it was considered Andrea's best work. His drawing was good for the time, but his lines are hard and his figures ugly. There are works by him still remaining at the monasteries of San Giuliano and Degli Angeli at Florence, and at Legnaia; there are also four in the Florentine academy, and a work by him was bought for the nation in the Lombardi collection lately purchased. The date of his death is not known, but it is supposed to have been shortly after 1480.—(Vasari, Vite dei Pittori, &c., ed. Le Monnier.)—R. N. W.
CASTALDI, Cornelius, an Italian poet and lawyer, was born in 1480, and died in 1536. He studied at Padua, where he founded a college. He was the friend of many of the most eminent scholars of his day. His poetical works were published in 1757, under the title of "Poese Volgari e Latine." His Latin poems have been preferred to those written in his native tongue.
CASTALIO or CHASTEILLON, Sebastian: the place of his birth is uncertain. In his epitaph he is said to be Allobrox, which might mean of Savoy or the Dauphiné. He was probably born in the latter country in 1515. He was a man of brilliant learning, but questionable theology. He studied first at Lyons. He afterwards lived at Geneva. Here he incurred the hostility of Calvin by doubting the inspiration of Solomon's Song, refusing subscription to the article in the Genevan Catechism on the Descent into Hell, and to the views of Calvin on election and predestination. In 1553 he was nominated professor of Greek at Basle. In 1551 he published a version of the Old and New Testaments in Latin, with annotations, dedicated to King Edward VI. Beza and the Calvinists charged him with the errors of Pelagius; and others have openly accused him of rationalism. He died at Basle in 1563. He edited Homer, Xenophon, and Herodotus; German Theology, 1557; and Thomas à Kempis, 1563. Scaliger says that he died of actual want. Montaigne in his essays tenderly alludes to this circumstance.
CASTANHEDA, Fernando Lopez de, a Portuguese historian, from whose history of the discovery and conquest of India by the Portuguese, Camoens borrowed the greater part of his materials for the Lusiad, died in 1559. The history, which is singularly trustworthy, appeared in 1551.
CASTANOS, Don Francis Xavier de, Duke de Baylen, the most distinguished Spanish general in the peninsular war, was born about 1756. He was descended from an eminent Biscayan family, and was a pupil of General Count O'Reilly, whom he accompanied to Germany, where he studied military tactics in the school of Frederick the Great. He attained the rank of lieutenant-general in 1798, and when Napoleon seized upon Spain in 1808, Castaños was appointed to the command of a division of the Spanish army on the frontiers of Andalusia, and defeated a French force under Dupont in the important battle of Baylen (July 22, 1807), which had the effect of driving Joseph Bonaparte from Madrid. But in November of the same year he was routed by the French at Tudela. In 1811 he was appointed by the regency commander of the fourth corps of the army, and was present at the battles of Albuera, Salamanca, and Vittoria. After the return of Ferdinand VII. he was nominated captain-general of Catalonia, and in 1815 commanded the Spanish force which invaded France in conjunction with the British army under Wellington. He resigned his office in 1816. Though a member of the moderate party, and a zealous supporter of Ferdinand, he opposed the changes made on the right of succession to the crown in 1833, and retired into private life till 1843, when, on the downfall of Espartero, he accepted the office of tutor to the young Queen Isabella. Castaños died 24th September, 1852, at the age of ninety-six, only ten days after the decease of the duke of Wellington.—J. T.
CASTEL, Louis Bertrand, a French mathematician and physician, belonging to the order of the Jesuits, was born at Montpellier in 1688. He came to Paris in 1720, on the invitation of Fontenelle and Tournamine, became a contributor to the Journal de Trevoux and the Mercury, and published a considerable number of scientific treatises, several of which attracted a great deal of attention. His principal works are a "Treatise on Universal Gravity;" an "Abridged System of Mathematics;" a "Universal System of Mathematics," which gained him admission into the Royal Society of London; his "Clavecin Oculaire," or Ocular Harpsichord, which at one time excited great attention, but is now forgotten; and his "True System of General Physics," in which he highly eulogizes Newton, but opposes his philosophy. Castel died in 1757.—J. T.
CASTEL, René Louis Richard, a French poet and naturalist, born at Vire, 6th October, 1758. He sat in the legislative assembly, but his bent was decidedly towards natural history, which at first took a poetic form. His poem, descriptive of plants, published in 1797, was very successful. Inspiring himself with the Georgics, he wrote another poem descriptive of Fontainebleau. Appointed inspector-general of the university by Napoleon, he was dismissed by the Bourbons, when he turned his attention seriously to the study of natural history, taking for the chief subject of observation, fishes, on which he wrote largely. He died in 1832.—J. F. C.
CASTELA, Henri, a French traveller, a native of Toulouse, who visited Palestine and Egypt about the beginning of the seventeenth century, and published an account of his travels, with the title of "Saint Voyage de Jerusalem et du Mont Sinai,
