fiery valour of the Mamelukes no longer needed, whilst their turbulence was feared, the Egyptian government determined to destroy them. This determination was ultimately carried into effect with remarkable vigour, but with disgraceful perfidy, by Mehemet Ali. The struggle, however, was a long one; and the beys for a considerable period defied his power and repelled his attacks. At length, in 1811, occurred the infamous massacre by which Mehemet Ali rid himself of his foes. Ibrahim, with most of the other chiefs who escaped from this sanguinary act, fled into Nubia. He died at Dongola in 1817. Brave, just, and pious according to his creed, he was dignified by his contemporaries with the name of "El Kebir" (the Great); but a fatal irresolution or timidity in counsel was his bane through life.
IBRAHIM-EFFENDI, was a converted Turk, and a member of the corps of Ulema. He was skilled in Arabic and Persian, and filled important offices, but was led to embrace christianity by reading the New Testament, and retired to Venice, where he became a dominican by the name of Paul Anthony Effendi. His MSS. were left by him to various libraries, and included his Arabic versions of the gospels and other parts of scripture. Ibrahim died in 1697, aged fifty-six.—B. H. C.
IBRAHIM-PACHA, viceroy designate of Egypt, was born in 1789 at Cavalla in Roumelia, It is doubtful whether he was the real or merely the adopted son of Mehemet Ali, from whom, however, he always received the treatment of a father. At sixteen, he was intrusted by Mehemet Ali with the command of the force employed to preserve tranquillity in Upper Egypt; and in repressing the wild Arabs of the desert he contracted habits of savage coercion, which, displayed afterwards in other regions, procured him the fame of an even more than oriental cruelty. In 1816 he was sent to operate against the Wahabies, an Arabian sect of militant fanatics who aimed at purifying mahometanism, and who denied the claims of the sultan to be considered the chief of Islam. By razzias, corruption, and hard fighting, Ibrahim subdued them; and after the capture of their principal stronghold, and the surrender of their chief, he made on his return a triumphal entry into Cairo, and was named by the sultan Pacha of the Holy Places. For several years afterwards he powerfully aided Mehemet Ali in organizing an Egyptian army, drilled after the European fashion; and the force which was the result of their combined efforts was distinguished, whatever might be its faults, by a considerable degree of discipline. The appeal made by the sultan in 1824 to Mehemet Ali for aid against the Greek revolution, found Ibrahim ready. Appointed generalissimo of the Egyptian army of co-operation, he succeeded, after an unsuccessful attempt, in disembarking in the south-western corner of the Morea, in the February of 1825. Marching northwards, he took Navarino; Tripolizza fell before him; but, when menacing Nauplia, he was checked by Ipsilanti. Summoned by the Turkish commander, Reschid Pacha, to assist him in reducing Missolonghi, he took it by assault, after a heroic defence, in the April of 1826. It was Ibraham's successes chiefly which produced the intervention of the great powers, and after the battle of Navarino he was forced to evacuate Greece. During the next four years, Ibrahim Pacha made new exertions to improve the organization of the Egyptian army, profiting by what he had seen of the French troops in Greece, and , creating a regular cavalry. In 1831 Mehemet Ali, in carrying out his long-cherished designs upon Syria, found himself involved in hostilities with his suzerain the sultan. Ibrahim Pacha commanded the army which invaded Syria in 1831. He had taken Gaza and Acre, the latter after a siege of six months (December, 1831, to May, 1832), defeated the army of the sultan at Hems, and captured Antioch, when on the 21st of December, having entered Anatolia, he found himself confronted at Konieh by a Turkish army under Reschid Pacha, with whom he had co-operated at the siege of Missolonghi. The Turks were routed, and Ibrahim might have marched on Constantinople. Russian intervention, claimed by the sultan against Ibrahim, produced the intervention of France and England in their turn. Again Ibrahim was checked by the interference of the great powers. He was appointed governor of the Syrian pachaliks ceded by the Porte in consequence of his victories, and had discharged the duties of his post for several years with rigour and vigour, when in 1833 hostilities once more broke out between the sultan and Mehemet Ali, who refused to pay tribute to his suzerain, and claimed hereditary possession both of Syria and Egypt. Ibrahim had gained over the Turks the battle of Nezib (25th June, 1839), the Turkish fleet had deserted to Mehemet Ali, and the pretensions of the latter were being supported by France. It was then that Lord Palmerston, with great ability, negotiated a treaty to which England, Russia, Austria, and Prussia were parties—France being excluded—to enforce the submission of Mehemet Ali. Beyrout was bombarded, Acre taken, and Ibrahim had to fall back upon Damascus. On the submission of Mehemet Ali, Ibrahim evacuated Syria, and was designated successor to Mehemet Ali as hereditary governor of Egypt. For several years he devoted himself to agriculture; and after the abdication, quickly revoked, of Mehemet Ali, he visited in 1845 France, Italy, and England. He returned to Egypt in the August of 1846, and, attacked by the disease which proved fatal to him, repaired to Malta and Italy. Mehemet Ali was now nearing his end, and had become unfit to govern. In the July of 1846 Ibrahim Pacha returned to Egypt, and proceeded thence to Constantinople, where he formally received the Egyptian viceroyalty, which he did not enjoy many weeks, dying at Cairo of dysentery a few months before Mehemet Ali, on the 9th November, 1848. He was a brave and skilful soldier, a sagacious and stern administrator.—F. E.
IBYCUS, a Greek lyric poet, born at Rhegium in Italy. He spent part of his life at Samos, at the court of Polycrates, about 540 b.c. It is said that, while travelling through a desert region near Corinth, he was assassinated by robbers, and that, dying, he called upon a flock of cranes flying over him to bear witness to the murder. Some time afterwards, when the people of Corinth were assembled in a public place, the cranes appeared, and some of the murderers being present, one of them said, laughing, to his companions, "Behold the avengers of Ibycus." This led to an inquiry, which resulted in the conviction of the assassins. Hence the origin of the proverb, Ibyci grues. Only a few fragments of the works of Ibycus remain.—G. BL.
ICTINUS: this celebrated Greek architect, and contemporary of Pericles at Athens, must have been born about 480 years before our era, as his great work, the Parthenon at Athens, was certainly completed by the year 438 b.c. when Phidias' celebrated chryselephantine statue of Minerva was placed in it, and consecrated in that year. Ictinus superintended many great works, in which accordingly he necessarily required assistants. In the construction of the Parthenon at Athens, Callicrates and another architect of the name of Carpion were his assistants. Ictinus and Carpion published a description of the temple. Ictinus was also the architect of the great temple of Ceres at Eleusis; in this he was apparently assisted by Corœbus and Metagenes, as these names are also associated with the work. He was also the architect of the temple of Apollo Epicurius at Bassæ near Phigaleia. These temples are all of marble, and of the Doric or Echinus order. The ornamental sculptures of the Parthenon and the temple of Apollo are now preserved in the British Museum, and known as the Elgin and Phigaleian marbles: the colossal statue of the Eleusinian Ceres, also by Phidias, is at Cambridge. The details of the Parthenon, as of most other ancient temples, were all coloured, or relieved by colour. The dimensions of this temple, now only a picturesque ruin, are comparatively small, being about in breadth one hundred feet, in length two hundred and thirty feet, in height sixty-five feet; the columns being under thirty-one and a half feet high. Magnitude was evidently not a necessary element of grandeur with Ictinus or among the Greeks; colour and proportion seem to have constituted the essential elements of beauty even in architecture.—R. N. W.
IDACIUS or ITHACIUS, a historical writer of the fifth century, born at Lamego in Gallicia, visited Jerome and other hermits in Palestine, and became bishop of a small diocese in Portugal about 427. Idacius is mentioned by Leo I. and other ancient authors, and appears to have died soon after 469. He wrote a "Chronicon," in continuation of Jerome from 379 to 469, which is valuable. He is also supposed by some to have compiled the Fasti Consulares or Fasti Idatiani.—B. H. C.
IDELER, Christian Ludwig, an eminent Prussian linguist, astronomer, chronologist, and astronomical archæologist, was born at Gross-Brese, near Perleberg, on the 21st of September, 1766, and died at Berlin on the 10th of August, 1846. He held at different times various appointments connected with practical astronomy and scientific education; from 1816 to 1822 he was tutor to the Princes William-Frederick and Charles; in 1820 he became a member of the Academy of Sciences of Berlin,
