mistaken in his philosophy; but he walked before men with the conscious, commanding rectitude of a warrior of God. The collected works of Fichte, edited by his son, occupy about a dozen volumes. Those of the highest pretensions are the least interesting and suggestive. Indeed, we know not of any more thoroughly wearisome and repulsive books than Fichte's own expositions of the Wissenschaftslehre, especially those which the younger Fichte published after his father's death. But his more popular productions, besides their philosophical acumen and their lofty moral tone, have the rarest literary merits. A copious biography of Fichte has been written by his son. Some of Fichte's works have been translated into French; many of them most admirably into English by Mr. William Smith, who has also furnished a careful and elaborate memoir. We wish that Mr. Smith had received encouragement enough to enrich our English literature, our English thought, with one or two more of Fichte's productions, such as his "System of Morals," and his "Addresses to the German Nation." Fichte has written on the philosophy of law and of politics, and with his usual vigour and originality. But here also, we have to applaud, not the metaphysical fruitfulness, but the moral elevation. An athlete, Fichte renders all who draw near him athletic. In an age like this, when the will of the community is so weak, there is no better teacher than Fichte. He can inspire in the very feeblest the pith and the purpose of manliness. Metaphysical systems pass away; one dethrones another; but this brave brow has an immortal light for us—this brave breast, very precious treasures. His volumes may moulder on forgotten shelves; but his godlike deeds lead us from our cant and cowardice to that blessed life which he so enthusiastically celebrated.—W. M—l.
* FICHTE, Emmanuel Hermann, the only child of Johann Gottlieb Fichte, was born at Jena in 1797. The example and instructions of his father led him early into the path of metaphysical speculation. Repelled by Hegelianism, he was attracted by Schelling's gorgeous doctrines. He was afterwards more of an independent inquirer. First placed as a professor of philosophy at Bonn, he is now professor at Tübingen. He is a voluminous writer, and has done much to promote the study of philosophy. His latest philosophical phase is a kind of sentimental spiritualism, which we must regard less as a claim of fresh conquests than as a confession of weariness, and which is not free from credulity and superstition. Of this our readers can judge, as Mr. J. D. Morell has translated one of his recent works. Immanuel Hermann would, perhaps, have done more in philosophy, if he had not borne the great name of Fichte. Neither in mind nor in character does he seem at all to resemble his father; and probably he has been paralyzed by the dread of seeming to be his imitator.—W. M—l.
FICINO, Marsilio, a physician and philosopher of Florence, was born in 1433. At this era the Platonic philosophy was rapidly gaining favour throughout Europe, but especially in Italy. Gemistius, Pletho, and Bessarion had prepared the way, and the elder Cosmo de Medici resolved upon founding at Florence an academy devoted to the defence and promulgation of Platonism. The execution of this project was committed in 1460 to Ficino, who entered upon his task with zeal and ability. In furtherance of this object he issued Latin translations, not only of Plato, but of the leading Alexandrians—Proclus, Jamblichus, and Plotinus. He wrote also several original works of similar tendencies, such as a "Life of Plato" (Vita Platonis), and "Theologia Platonis," in which he endeavours to establish the immortality of the soul by philosophical arguments, and opposes the Averroistic doctrine of a universal intelligence, then generally maintained in the schools. Ficino and his followers belong in many respects to the Alexandrians, rather than to the Academics. They engrafted upon the original system of Plato a variety of neo-platonic, cabalistic, and other oriental doctrines. They regarded the mythic Hermes Trismegistos of the Egyptians as the true originator of the theory of ideas. They believed that Plato had derived many of his tenets from the Jewish philosophy and religion, and hence deemed his system more consonant with christianity than the dominant Aristotelianism. They did not, however, seek to overthrow the authority of the Stagirite, but rather to harmonize his doctrines, purified from scholastic perversion, with the views of Plato. Hence we perceive the position of Ficino and his school. As opponents of scholasticism they rank amongst the reformers of philosophy. By their cabalistic and theosophic speculations they are connected with the high philosophic school of alchemists (Lully, Paracelsus, Helmont). But believing that the methods (laws) of nature are not invariable, but subject to the arbitrary interference of spiritual beings, they have also a retrograde tendency. Ficino likewise endeavoured to employ Catholicism as an agent in mental progress. His most eminent disciple was Giovanni Pico, count and prince of Mirandula and Concordia. Ficino died in 1499. Complete editions of his works appeared at Basle in 1561, and at Paris in 1641. His life has been written by his friend and pupil Giovanni Corsio, Pisa, 1772.—J. W. S.
FICORONI, Francesco, a celebrated antiquarian, born at Lugano in 1664. He was elected a member of the Academy of Inscriptions, the Royal Society of London, and many other learned bodies; and he founded at Rome the academy of Gl' Inculti. His numerous works on archæology are written in a style considered by Maffei obscure, and even barbarous. Ficoroni died at Rome on the 23rd January, 1747.—A. C. M.
FIDDES, Richard, D.D., an English writer of some eminence, was born of respectable parents, near Scarborough, in the year 1671, and was educated at Corpus Christi college, Oxford, where he graduated in 1693. Having been ordained in the following year, he was soon after presented to the rectory of Halsham in Yorkshire, where he continued several years, and attracted attention as an effective and popular preacher; but being deprived by a paralytic affection of the power of distinct articulation, and having obtained a dispensation of non-residence, he went to London in 1712, and devoted himself to literary pursuits. He died at Putney in 1725, and was buried in Fulham churchyard, near his friend and patron Bishop Compton. The work by which Dr. Fiddes first distinguished himself to any considerable extent, is his system of divinity, the first part of which—"Theologia Speculativa" &c.—was published in 1718, and the second part—"Theologia Practica," in 1720. Written in a somewhat elegant style, it was favourably received; but not being marked by much accuracy or depth of thought, it has failed to take a permanently high place among works of the class to which it belongs. To general English readers Fiddes is best known by his "Life of Cardinal Wolsey," published in 1724. This book, which is alleged to have been suggested, planned, and in other respects partly prepared by Atterbury, is characterized by the most violent party spirit; and the unfairness is in many instances so gross, that Fiddes was charged by some of his contemporaries with being in reality a papist, though holding office in the Church of England. Besides the works we have mentioned, and some others of less importance, Dr. Fiddes published—"A general Treatise of Morality;" "A Preparative to the Lord's Supper;" and "A Letter in answer to one from a Free-thinker." Fiddes was ingenious rather than learned; he was a clever rhetorician, but an inaccurate thinker; he was a keen political partisan, and there is reason to believe that, pressed by the inopia rei familiaris, he wrote in a way that a man of greater moral courage would have scorned to do.—J. B. J.
FIDELIS, Cassandra. See Fedele.
FIELD, Barron, an English lawyer and botanist, the son of a medical man in London, was born on the 23d of October, 1786, and died at Torquay on the 11th of April, 1846. He was a lineal descendant of Oliver Cromwell. He was educated for the bar, and entered the Inner Temple. In 1811 he published an "Analysis of Blackstone's Commentaries." In 1816 he was appointed judge of the supreme court of New South Wales, and continued in that office till 1824. In 1829 he was chosen chief justice of Gibraltar. In both these appointments he applied himself to his favourite study of botany. He made a collection of drawings of the plants of Botany Bay, and at Gibraltar he cultivated many interesting plants. He was a fellow of the Linnæan Society, and he published "Memoirs on New South Wales," containing some notes by Allan Cunningham on the botany of New Holland.—J. H. B.
FIELD, John, an English astronomer of the sixteenth century. The precise date of his birth and death have not been ascertained; nor is there any account of him in any biographical work, except a very meagre one in Wood's Athenæ Oxonienses. He was descended of a good family, and was born probably at London in the early part of the sixteenth century. It is at least almost certain that he was admitted fellow of Lincoln's college, Oxford, in 1555, and the preface to his first publication, which bears the date of 1556, is stamped with evident
