exerted himself more especially to restore confidence to capital. While adhering generally to the protective system, so long dominant in France, he at the same time made several judicious relaxations in the severity of the French tariff. After the coup d'état, M. Fould reaccepted the post of finance-minister, but resigned on the occurrence of what is known in contemporary history as the confiscation of the Orleans property. M. Fould's scruples do not appear, however, to have been very deeply seated, for he consented, on the day of his resignation, to be nominated senator, and soon afterwards minister of state and of the imperial household. In this position he had charge of the arrangements for the Exposition of 1855, and of various public works, notably, the completion of the Louvre. He is understood to be one of the official chiefs of the peace party in France, and it was in a letter to his minister of state that the emperor announced his determination to inaugurate a free trade, or quasi-free-trade commercial policy in France. Up to his acceptance of ministerial functions, M. Fould was associated in the management of the well-known house of Fould, Oppenheim, and Cie.—F. E.
FOULIS, Robert and Andrew, two learned printers, natives of Glasgow; the elder was born in 1707, and the younger in 1712. Robert was at an early age apprenticed to a barber, but by the advice of the celebrated Professor Hutcheson of Glasgow, he was induced to become a bookseller and printer, and attended the lectures of his benefactor for several sessions. Andrew seems to have gone through a regular course of study, with a view to the office of the ministry. Robert commenced business as a bookseller in 1739, and in 1743 was appointed printer to the university. The first works which he printed were principally of a religious character, but in 1742 he published an excellent 4to edition of Demetrius Phalereus De Elocutione. Next followed his famous immaculate 12mo edition of Horace, the sheets of which, as they were printed, were exhibited in the Glasgow university, and a reward offered for every error that was detected in them. Soon after the publication of this work the brothers entered into partnership, and for thirty years they issued a series of standard works, printed with great accuracy and elegance. The most celebrated of these are the editions of Cicero in 20 vols. 12mo; Tacitus, 4 vols.; Horace, Virgil, Tibullus and Propertius, Juvenal and Persius, Lucretius, Herodotus, 9 vols.; Thucydides, 8 vols.; Xenophon, 8 vols.; Longinus; Epictetus; Cæsar's Commentaries, 1 vol. folio; Homer, 4 vols. folio; a beautiful edition of the Greek Testament in small 4to. To these may be added a folio edition of Milton, Gray's Poems, Pope's works, &c. The printing establishment of the Messrs. Foulis was eminently successful, but these learned and indefatigable men were unfortunately ruined by an ill-judged attempt to establish an academy for the cultivation of the fine arts in Scotland. The country was at that time but ill-prepared for such a scheme, and the enormous expense incurred in procuring the services of foreign artists, and in sending pupils to Italy to study and copy the works of the ancients, exhausted the funds of the two brothers, and ultimately involved them in overwhelming pecuniary difficulties. Various extensive works which they had planned were in consequence abandoned, and they ended their days in poverty. Andrew died suddenly in 1775, and Robert in 1776.—J. T.
FOULON, Joseph-François, a French administrator, was born in 1715, and died in 1789. He held in succession several important places in the civil service, and at the outbreak of the Revolution is said to have counselled timely reform of the more glaring abuses of government. But some of his expressions, particularly the famous one—"If the mob have no bread, let them eat hay"—had exasperated the populace, who, after the taking of the Bastile, seized him, and in a frenzy of rage tore him to pieces. His head was carried aloft on a pike, and presented to his son-in-law, Bertier de Sauvigny.—R. M., A.
FOULQUES, the name of several counts of Anjou. Foulques I., who died in 938, enjoyed great favour at the court of France, and fought valiantly against the Normans and Bretons.—Foulques II., justly called the Good, not only for his piety, but also on account of the assiduity with which he promoted all the arts of peace in his territories; died in 958. The circumstances of the time were favourable to his tastes. Neither foreign war nor domestic strife interrupted the peaceful pursuits in which he encouraged his subjects to engage.—Foulques III., called Nerra or Le Noir, at the age of fifteen succeeded his father, Geoffrey Grisegonelle. Foulques Nerra in 987 came into an inheritance which the border-warfare of the period, in the course of his father's life, had greatly circumscribed, and he had therefore no want of opportunity for the display of his chivalrous and turbulent character. Eudes of Blois was the first on whom he attempted to make reprisals; afterwards he attacked Conan of Bretagne, who perished in an engagement on the plain of Conquereux. In 1003 Foulques paid his first visit to Jerusalem, and though by no means a saint, he was the cause of a miracle, which the chroniclers relate with great admiration. On his return he resumed his warfare with Eudes of Blois; and in 1025, after much fighting in which he was valiantly seconded by his son, Geoffrey Martel, he captured the town of Saumur. Two years afterwards Foulques made a second pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and a third in 1039. Returning to Anjou, he died at Metz, 22nd May, 1040.—Foulques IV., surnamed le Rechin (the Crabbed), born at Chateau-Landon, 14th April, 1043; grandson, by the mother's side, of Foulques Nerra, and nephew and, in part, successor of Geoffrey Martel. On the death of Geoffrey in 1060, Foulques obtained the province of Saintonge and some small dependencies; while his brother, Geoffrey le Barbu, was invested with the sovereignty of Anjou and Touraine. This arrangement Foulques was soon in arms to set aside, and after a tedious struggle he obtained possession of Anjou and of the person of his brother, whom he committed to prison. The character of Foulques, turbulent and unscrupulous in his youth, was detestable in later life. Repudiating his first wife and her successor, he married, about 1088, the beautiful Bertrade, daughter of Simon de Montfort. Four years after her marriage with Foulques, Bertrade accepted the advances made to her by Phillip I. of France, and an adulterous union was the result, at which the church and the people exclaimed with indignation, but which was taken in good part by the deserted husband. Foulques left a history of the counts of Anjou, including an autobiography, a fragment of which has been preserved. He died 14th April, 1109.—Foulques V., count of Anjou and subsequently king of Jerusalem, son of Foulques le Rechin and of Bertrade, was born in 1090 or 1092. Foulques inherited the passion of his ancestors for pilgrimages; and after taking part in the wars of Louis le Gros with the English, he set out for the Holy Land at the head of one hundred knights and men-at-arms. He remained in Palestine a year, warring with the infidels; and by his chivalrous character so favourably impressed Baldwin, king of Jerusalem, that nine years afterwards he was invited back to the holy city, to espouse Baldwin's daughter Melisinda. On receiving this invitation, Foulques abandoned his French fiefs to his eldest son, Geoffrey, who had just espoused Matilda, the daughter of Henry I. of England; and escorted by a brilliant retinue set out for Jerusalem. Foulques' marriage with Melisinda took place in 1129; and in August, 1131, after the death of Baldwin, he was crowned king of Jerusalem. During his reign, which lasted thirteen years, he was no less distinguished for probity in the management of the internal affairs of his kingdom than for valour in defending it against the infidels. He died of a fall from his horse in 1144, leaving two children, the eldest of whom Baldwin III., then thirteen years of age, was crowned along with his mother in the same year.—J. S., G.
FOULQUES, Archbishop of Rheims, was born about 850. Connected by birth with the dukes of Spoleto, and possessing great abilities and accomplishments, he was rapidly promoted to episcopal rank. He was consecrated to the see of Rheims in March, 883. The cause of learning in that city owed much to his exertions; for he not only revived the schools of which the barbarian Normans had deprived Rheims, but himself directed and liberally encouraged the studies of the youth who resorted to them. Nor was Foulques less active in the interests of morality; he rebuked the delinquencies of more than one royal personage with an apostolic frankness. In all the vicissitudes of the monarchy in the latter half of the ninth century Foulques was a prominent personage; he took part successively with his relative, Gui of Spoleto, Arnulf of Germania, Eudes of Paris, and Charles the Simple, in their struggles for the throne left vacant by the death of Carloman and Louis III. After the death of Eudes, Charles the Simple invested Foulques with the dignity of chancellor of the kingdom. He was assassinated at the instigation of Baldwin, count of Flanders, in 900.—J. S., G.
FOULQUES DE NEUILLY, a French Roman catholic priest, born in the middle of the twelfth century. He became famous about the year 1196 as one of the most eloquent orators of the
