consists of an annular wheel with concave vanes, surrounding a fixed hollow cylinder, which discharges water against the vanes of the wheel through the interstices between a set of curved guide-blades. M. Fourneyron's turbines have since been extensively used in various parts of the world, and have been from time to time improved and modified in detail by himself and by other engineers. His example also stimulated various inventors to contrive other forms of turbine, of which some have proved very successful. M. Fourneyron is the author of a paper on Turbines in the Bulletin de la Société d'Encouragement pour l'Industrie Nationale for 1834, and of a treatise on the same subject published in 1841. He died in July, 1867, while engaged as a juror at the Paris Exhibition.—R.
FOURNIER, Pierre Simon, an eminent engraver and letter-founder of Paris, was born there in 1712. He wrote several treatises on the origin and progress of typography, and a history of wood engravers, and was the inventor of some musical characters for printing, which in beauty of effect were considered equal to engraving. His chief work, in which he gives specimens of his types and inventions, is entitled "Manuel Typographique, utile aux Gens de Lettres," Paris, 1764-1766, two vols. 8vo. He also published a table of proportions to be observed in the height and size of the different characters. His death took place in 1768.—J. B. J.
* FOWLER, Charles, architect, was born May 17, 1792, at Collumpton, Devon. After serving the usual term with a builder in Exeter, he came to London (1814), and was for four years in the office of Mr. Laing, the architect of the London custom-house. Mr. Fowler's chief buildings are the court of bankruptcy, Basinghall Street (1821); the fever hospital (1849); wax-chandlers' hall, Gresham Street (1853). He also built the Devon lunatic asylum, three or four churches, the tropical-house in the grounds of Sion-house, and many private residences. He has likewise designed several large markets, including those of Covent Garden and Hungerford, London, and the New Market, Gravesend. He erected the handsome bridge which crosses the Dart at Totness; and his design for the new London bridge gained the first prize of £250, though eventually the construction of that work was intrusted to Sir John Rennie. Mr. Fowler was one of the founders, for some time secretary, and afterwards more than once vice-president of the Royal Institute of Architects. Owing to ill health Mr. Fowler has for some years withdrawn from professional practice.—J. T—e.
FOWLER, Edward, an eminent English prelate, was born in 1632 at Westerleigh in the county of Gloucester, and received the first rudiments of classical learning at the grammar-school in Gloucester. He was some time chaplain to Corpus Christi college, Oxford. Having entered at Trinity college, Cambridge, he took his M.A degree there, but returned to Oxford in 1656. The dowager-countess of Kent made him her chaplain, and gave him the rectory of Northill in Bedfordshire. He had been educated a puritan; but having conformed to the Church of England, he was appointed in 1673 rector of All Hallowes, Bread Street, London. In 1675 he was made prebendary of Gloucester, and in 1681 vicar of the living of St. Giles', Cripplegate. He was a hearty protestant, and stood among the foremost of the London clergy who in 1688 refused to read the declaration for liberty of conscience, which so much contributed to the overthrow of James II. In 1691 he was consecrated bishop of Gloucester. His theological publications were numerous, but are now almost forgotten, with the exception of his "Design of Christianity," which has been often reprinted. He died at Chelsea in 1714.—T. J.
FOWLER, John, a learned printer, was born in Bristol. Having been educated at Winchester school, he entered New college, Oxford, of which he became a fellow in 1515. An ardent Roman catholic, he resigned his fellowship in 1559, and went to Antwerp and Louvain, where he learned the art of printing. He was a ripe scholar and a sound critic. He died at Neumark in Bavaria in 1578.—T. J.
FOWLER, Thomas, an eminent English physician, born at York in 1736. In 1760 he began to practise as an apothecary in his native city. In 1774 he entered the university of Edinburgh, and took his M.D. degree there in 1778. For some time he was physician to the infirmary at Stafford, but in 1791 returned to York, where he died in 1801. While at Stafford, he published medical reports on the effects of tobacco, and of arsenic, and on acute and chronic rheumatism.—T. J.
FOWNES, George, an eminent English chemist, was born in London, May 14, 1815. He was educated at Enfield, and afterwards at Bourbourg, near Gravelines, in France. He at first entered business, but soon left it to follow his natural taste—the study of science. When about eighteen years of age he became a member of the Western Literary Institution, and, together with Mr. H. Watts and others, established a philosophical class. He then devoted himself entirely to the study of chemistry, and in 1837 became a pupil of Mr. Everitt, lecturer on chemistry at the Middlesex hospital; and afterwards, proceeding to Giessen, he took the degree of Ph.D. On his return he became assistant to Professor Graham at University college; and having thus eminently qualified himself as a teacher of chemistry, he undertook the lectureship at Charing Cross hospital. In 1842 he wrote an essay on the food of plants, which obtained the prize of the Royal Agricultural Society, and in the same and the following year he delivered two courses of lectures at the Royal Institution. In 1842 he was appointed professor of chemistry to the Pharmaceutical Society; and, at the death of Mr. Everitt, succeeded to the lectureship at the Middlesex hospital; but owing to declining health and symptoms of consumption, he was forced to resign this office in 1845. Fownes was now appointed professor of practical chemistry to the Birkbeck laboratory, University college, and he retained this office till his death. In the autumn of 1847 he was advised to go to a warmer climate, and he accordingly proceeded to Barbadoes, returning in the following spring; but a cold unfortunately caught on the return passage aggravated his disease. Having in vain attempted to recruit his health at Torquay, he returned to his father's house at Brompton, where he expired on the 31st January, 1849. Fownes' qualifications as a scientific chemist were of the highest order. He first succeeded in producing a vegeto-alkali, or organic salt-base (furfurine), and discovered furfurol and benzoline. He published papers on the action of oil of vitriol, on ferrocyanide of potassium, on the equivalent of carbon, &c. He was the author of a most excellent manual of chemistry, published in 1844; it has since been several times republished, under the care of A. W. Hofmann and Bence Jones; also, of "An Essay on Chemistry, as exemplifying the wisdom and beneficence of God."—C. E. L.
* FOX, Sir Charles, civil engineer, born at Derby on the 11th of March, 1810, son of the late Francis Fox of that town, who obtained a high position in the medical profession. He was the youngest of four brothers, and in accordance with his father's wish was destined for the medical profession, being placed under his brother, Douglas Fox of Derby. His natural bent for the mechanical sciences, however, led to the cancelling of his indentures when he was at the age of twenty. He then went to Liverpool, and was for some time in the employment of Captain Ericsson. Afterwards struggling on as a lecturer, as a scientific assistant, and as a practical mechanic, he at length attracted the notice of Robert Stephenson, through whose influence he was appointed an assistant-engineer upon the London and Birmingham railway, having charge of the heavy works at Watford, and, at a later period, of those connected with the extension of the line from Camden Town to Euston Square. He then joined the late Mr. Bramah in forming the manufacturing and contractors' business, for many years carried on by the firm of Fox, Henderson, & Co. Amongst the numerous works with which he has been connected, are several important railways both in Great Britain and abroad; the waterworks of Berlin; the bridges over the Rhone and Saône, near Lyons; the bridge over the Medway at Rochester; two bridges over the Thames; the Birmingham station; the Paddington station; the building for the Great Exhibition of 1851; and the Crystal Palace at Sydenham. These works present some of the finest examples of skilful design and good execution in the world. He received the honour of knighthood, along with Sir Joseph Paxton and Sir William Cubitt, from the queen, at Windsor, on the 22d of October, 1851, as an acknowledgment of their services in planning and executing the Great Exhibition building. Sir Charles Fox is a fellow of the Society of Arts, and of the Royal Asiatic Society, a member of the Institution of Civil Engineers, and of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers.—R.
FOX, Charles James, third son of Henry, first Lord Holland, and of Lady Georgiana Lennox, was born on the 24th of February, 1749. This great statesman belonged to a family which rose to eminence after the Revolution, and gradually
