occasionally suspended by temporary submission to some of the neighbouring powers, viz., Monferrato, Visconti, or the kings of France. In 1353 Simone Boccanera succeeded in putting down the nobles, and secured for a time the rule of the popular party. Then came the election of Gabriele Adorno, a rich merchant, who endeavoured to give laws to the Genoese democracy. He was, however, overthrown in 1370, and, amidst the tumult which took place, Domenico da Campo Fregoso, another influential tradesman, was made doge by the people. His government proved strong and beneficial to the lower classes. He subdued the Fieschi and other nobles; and when, in 1372, several Genoese and other settlers at Cyprus were murdered in a riot by the Venetians established in the island, he avenged the injury by sending his brother Pietro with a powerful fleet to the conquest of that colony. A war with Venice ensued, which proved unsuccessful, and was the cause of much discontent at Genoa. The enemies of the doge—the Adorni, Guarci, and others—assailed Domenico in the town-palace, and obliged him to resign his office, which was then bestowed on Nicolo da Guarco, who also belonged to a plebeian family. Both Domenico and Pietro were kept prisoners for a time, but the latter managed to escape, and attempted in 1380 to recover the supreme power. He was then defeated in his plans, but in 1390, whilst Antoniotto Adorno was doge, the Fregosi called the people to arms, and Pietro obtained the dignity of chief magistrate of the republic for his nephew Jacopo. The new doge was a man of pacific habits. When, therefore, Antoniotto Adorno, after a short exile, returned to Genoa in 1391, Jacopo resigned the office to his competitor.—Pietro Fregoso, who also was doge in 1393, left several sons. Orlando, one of them, attempted to rid Genoa of the sway of Teodoro II., marquis of Monferrato, but was worsted and slain by the people at Savona. At the beginning of the fifteenth century the republic was more than ever distressed by the factions.—Tommaso da Campo Fregoso and Jacopo de Giustiniani were elected dictators under the name of Priori. They convoked an assembly of the citizens, and these named as their doge Bernabo da Goano. A few months afterwards Tommaso da Campo Fregoso and Giorgio Adorno having entered into an alliance, rose in arms against him, and Tommaso took the reins of government. He ruled, however, under unfavourable circumstances. After some successes at the beginning of his administration, the exiles (fuorusciti) repeatedly assailed the republic, and they gave occasion to Filippo Maria Visconti, duke of Milan, to invade its domains by land, while Batista da Montaldo defeated on the sea and took prisoner the brother of the doge, Batista da Campo Fregoso. Tommaso was alarmed by these successive losses, and gave up Genoa to the lordship of the duke of Milan for a large sum of money. Subsequently, however, he conspired against the new state of things, and in 1435, through a rising of the people, he overthrew the Milanese government. Isnardo da Guarco was elected doge, but ceded the place to Tommaso. In those days the Fregosi had reached the apex of their influence and wealth, but their power excited the jealousy of powerful families, especially that of the Fieschi, who aroused the people against them. Tommaso was banished, and he retired into a sort of confinement in his principality of Sarzana. During his absence the government of the republic was alternately sought for by Fieschi, Adorni, and the Fregosi themselves. In 1447 Giano da Campo Fregoso unexpectedly entered at night the Genoese harbour, and effected a successful landing. He then forced the doge, Bernabo Adorno, to leave the town, and occupied his place. At his death in the following year, Ludovico da Campo Fregoso succeeded him; but two years afterwards he abdicated in favour of Tommaso, who was still residing at Sarzana. The latter, however, refused, and proposed his nephew Pietro in his stead, who was accepted by the people. Tommaso died in 1450. During the administration of Pietro the republic, while threatened at home by the refugees, was in imminent danger abroad of losing her eastern colonies through the approaching fall of the Greek empire. Neither the vigilance of the doge, nor the heroic resistance of Giovanni Giustiniani, were able to preserve the settlement of Pera at Constantinople. An equal danger was impending over Caffa, which was placed by Pietro under the immediate guardianship of the Banco di San Giorgio, the celebrated Genoese company, which formed the historical precedent of the last India Company of England. Through the power of that corporation the island of Corsica was defended against the attacks of Alfonso of Arragon, king of Naples. Pietro succeeded also in 1455 in putting down the Fieschi and Adorni, who had entered Genoa in great force; but he was unable subsequently to withstand their repeated attempts, and the support given them by the king of Naples. The consequence was that he placed Genoa under the protectorate of Charles VII. of France, who accepted the suzerainty of the republic, though promising to respect its franchises and the constitution of the Banco of San Giorgio. Pietro, however, ascertained ere long how dangerous it is to intrust to foreigners the liberties of a country. The French became actual masters of Genoa, and the doge was obliged, in 1459, to have recourse to arms in order to drive them out of his native town. He failed in the attempt, and was killed. But a year later (1461) the people of Genoa took up arms and liberated themselves. The common interest of the citizens against foreigners did not, however, succeed in reconciling the factions. Spinetta Fregoso was created doge, but soon resigned in favour of his relative Lodovico. Another member of the same family, brother to Pietro, was at that time (1462) archbishop of Genoa. His name was Paolo, and he was a man of uncommon energy of character. Restless in his ambition for power, he plotted against his kindred Spinetta and Lodovico, and took the government into his own hands. Compelled by the people to resign, he again seized the supreme magistracy of the republic in 1463, and was recognized as doge by Pope Pius II. Being master of all the forces of the state, he then aimed at establishing a permanent tyranny. The best citizens were seeking for refuge at Milan, where Francesco Sforza ruled supreme. He concluded a treaty with Louis XI. of France, by which the latter yielded to the duke of Milan the town of Savona and all the rights of the French dynasty on Genoa. Francesco Sforza then consented to help the Genoese refugees against the archbishop; and a strong body of Milanese soldiers entered with them the town in 1464. The archbishop saved himself by flight, but did not give up his ambitious schemes; and in 1484 was again lord of Genoa. Being, however, hardly pressed in a war with the Florentines, he applied for help to Lodovico Sforza, nicknamed il Moro, who was then master of Milan, and who promised to support him on condition of being acknowledged as lord of the republic. The archbishop consented and consigned the Castelletto (the principal fortress of Genoa) to the troops of the duke of Milan for an annual appointment of 6000 florins. We now approach a time when Genoa—repeatedly bought and sold—was losing every importance as an independent state, and was gradually sinking into a mere dependency of the foreign masters of Italy. In this state of things we find the Fregosi still preserving their native energy as individuals.—Ottaviano Fregoso, a renowned condottiere of the sixteenth century, endeavoured to rescue Genoa from the oppression of the French at the beginning of that century; and his relative Giano Fregoso, who was a general in the service of Venice, actually freed his native town from their thraldom in 1512. He was elected chief magistrate; but a year later the Adorni and Fieschi ousted him. As, however, the fortunes of the Genoese factions were then entirely dependent on the vicissitudes of the great war which was raging in Italy between France and Spain, in that very year Ottaviano Fregoso, who was serving Spain, entered Genoa with three thousand Spaniards, and was proclaimed doge in June. Although he had until then fought against France, when raised to power he changed his policy, thinking the French alliance more useful and more at hand than that of the imperials. But when in 1522 the French were compelled, through several defeats and the loss of Pizzighettone, to withdraw from Lombardy, Genoa remained exposed to the inroads of Spaniards led by Prospero Colonna; and Ottaviano Fregoso, who had till then governed Genoa with justice under the protection of France, was unable to resist the superior forces of the enemy. The town was taken, and he lost power and liberty. Here the history of the Campo Fregoso family comes to an end. The only member of the family worth noticing is the brother of Ottaviano, viz.. Cardinal Federigo, who distinguished himself as a scholar and a courtier in that essentially courtly and literary age.—A. S., O.
FREHER, Marquard, born at Augsburg in 1565; died at Nuremberg in 1614; learned civil law in the school of Cujas, was conseiller of Jean Casimir, prince palatine. In 1596 he was appointed professor of law at Heidelberg, an office which he resigned in 1598 from the variety of his occupations in the
