incense of the Egyptians, its preparation and mixture. This is mentioned both by Suidas and Plutarch, but is now lost. The latter may have been originally a part of the former, quoted under a peculiar title. As far as we can judge from the extracts derived from both, Manetho must have been thoroughly conversant with the subjects he wrote upon—a candid, intelligent, and trustworthy author. It is much to be regretted that neither of the treatises has been preserved. The first in particular would have been a welcome source of information relative to the religious and ethical notions of a people so interesting as the Egyptians. To the second class belongs his "History of Egypt," with which we are chiefly acquainted through Josephus, who has quoted several passages from it in his treatise against Apion, in the original Greek. This was divided into three books, of which the first gave the history prior to the thirty dynasties, and the first eleven; the second, from the twelfth to the nineteenth inclusive; and the third from the twentieth to the thirtieth, concluding with Nectanebus the last of the native Egyptian kings. The duration of the primitive or mythic period was supposed by Manetho to be twenty-four thousand nine hundred years; while the historical period of the thirty dynasties was three thousand five hundred and fifty-five years. The work of Manetho was subsequently corrupted by epitomizers; by Eusebius who interpolated it, by an impostor who assumed Manetho's name, and by a chronicle in which the dynasties were arbitrarily arranged. Hence the great difficulty at the present day of arriving at his genuine chronology, and freeing his text from the corruptions and interpolations it has suffered. That he drew his information from documents, there is no reason for doubting. Inscriptions or monuments confirm his statements; so that both credit and authority are justly attached to his statements, notwithstanding Hengstenberg's attempt to lessen them. Josephus says that Manetho controverted and corrected many things in Herodotus; which was probably done not in a separate treatise, as some say, but in his "History of Egypt." Syncellus quotes a work of Manetho on the Dog-star (ἡ βίβλος τῆς Σώθεος), a chronological production much later than the authentic Manetho, and therefore a forgery. There is also a poem under his name on astrology (Ἀποτελεσματικά) in six books, published by Axt and Rigler at Cologne, 1832, 8vo. This is also supposititious. Bunsen, in his great work on Egypt, has done much to support the credit of Manetho and to restore his chronology. Other Egyptian scholars, as Lepsius and Hincks, have also contributed to the same object. All the fragments have been published by Fruin, Leyden, 1847; and by Müller in the second volume of Fragmenta historicorum Græcorum, Paris, 1848.—S. D.
MANETTI or MANNETTI, Giannozzo, a man of extraordinary learning in letters and science, born in Florence of a noble family in June, 1396; died in Naples in September or October, 1459. He was engaged in twenty-nine embassies, and wrote more than one hundred volumes, chiefly in Latin; including a translation of the New Testament, a "Chronicle of Pistoja," and Lives of Pope Nicholas V., Dante, Petrarca, and Boccaccio. He was also an eminent Hebrew scholar and collector of books. His character was singularly blameless and noble.—W. M. R.
MANFRED, King of Naples and Sicily, a natural son of the Emperor-king Frederick II., born towards 1234. Frederick's successor. King Conrad, dying in 1254; and the next heir, his son Conradin, being an infant in Germany—the pope, Innocent IV., found it convenient to reassert the old claim to the kingdom as a papal feof. Manfred, after great vicissitudes of fortune, totally expelled the invaders; and, upon a false rumour of the death of Conradin, was crowned king on 11th August, 1258. A few months afterwards the crown was claimed for Conradin; Manfred declined to resign it, but offered the heir an unopposed succession after his death, and the matter seems not to have been actively contested. Meanwhile pope after pope excommunicated Manfred; and in 1263 Urban IV. published a crusade against him, and invested Charles of Anjou, brother of Louis IX. of France, in the Neapolitan kingdom. The battle of Benevento, 26th February, 1266, settled the conflict, Manfred being slain after great exertions of valour. While the suspicious evidence of papal partisans brands Manfred as the murderer of his father and two brothers, the attempted poisoner of Conradin, and a man guilty of incest, it remains at least certain that he was heroically brave, noble in form, an enlightened patron of letters and arts, and royally successful and splendid throughout his whole career up to his overthrow.—W. M. R.
MANFREDI, Eustachio, an eminent Italian mathematician, astronomer, and engineer, was born at Bologna on the 20th of September, 1674, and died there on the 15th of February, 1739. He was educated at the famous university of his native city, where he studied mathematics under Guglielmini; and while still a boy, he formed amongst his fellow-students a society for the discussion of scientific questions. About twenty years later, when the Bolognese Institute of Sciences and Arts was founded, through the liberality of the Count de Marsigli, it numbered amongst its members many of those who had belonged to that society of students; which in consequence may be regarded as in some sort the germ of its more celebrated successor. Being the son of a notary, Manfredi was induced by his father to study with a view to the legal profession, and in 1702 he obtained the degree of doctor of laws; but he eventually abandoned that profession in order to cultivate mathematics and astronomy. In 1698 he was appointed professor of mathematics in the university of Bologna, and in 1704 superintendent of hydraulic works. In the latter office he was successor to his master Guglielmini, whose works he edited.—(See Guglielmini.) In 1711 he became astronomer to the Bolognese Institute. In his scientific labours he was assisted by his two sisters, and by his brother, the subject of the following article. He was an associate of the French Academy of Sciences, and an honorary fellow of the Royal Society of London. He occupied his leisure in the composition of poetry; his later works of that class are by some highly esteemed.—W. J. M. R.
MANFREDI, Gabriele, younger brother of the preceding, and like him, an eminent mathematician, was born at Bologna on the 25th of March, 1681, and died there on the 13th of October, 1761. In 1707, he at once acquired a very high reputation in mathematics, by his treatise on the resolution of differential equations of the first order. In 1720 he was appointed professor of mathematical analysis, and in 1726, chancellor of the university of Bologna. In 1739 he succeeded his brother as superintendent of hydraulic works.—W. J. M. R.
MANGOU or MÆNGKE KHAN, a grandson of the great Mongolian conqueror Genghis Khan, was born in 1207 at Karakoroum. He was the eldest son of Tooloo the third son of Genghis, and distinguished himself as a warrior in the expeditions sent forth by his grandfather and by his uncle Oktai. Through the intrigues of his mother, he succeeded, after an interregnum of three years, to the supreme power as fourth great khan of Tartary in 1251. He first resorted to assassination and proscription as a means of increasing the stability of his throne; but when all rivals and pretenders had been put out of the way, he endeavoured to efface the remembrance of his cruelties by organizing the administration of his empire on a basis of equitable government. He distributed the immense territories of the Mongolian dominions among his brothers and cousins. He was very favourably disposed to the christians; and after receiving an embassy from Louis IX. of France, he allowed the christian doctrines to be taught in his dominions. To the mahometans he was not very favourable; and even Buddhism, which was the religion of the majority of his subjects, he appears to have treated with philosophical indifference. In 1257 he set out for China, in order to reckon with Kublai Khan, whose fidelity was suspected; and on making peace with his brother, he was proceeding to complete the conquest of the Chinese empire, when he met with his death at the siege of Hotchéou in 1259.—R. H.
MANI or MANES was a Persian by birth, belonging to the third century of the christian era. It is said that he was descended from a Magian family, was educated in the religion of Zoroaster, and embraced Christianity at the age of manhood; after which he became chief presbyter of a church in Ahvaz, principal city in the Persian province Huzitis. On the re-establishment of the Persian empire under the Sassanides, an attempt was made to restore the old religion to its former splendour, and separate it from the foreign elements with which it had become intermingled. As the religion of Zoroaster now came into collision with Christianity, Mani conceived the idea of purifying the latter and bringing it into union with the Zoroastrian. It would appear that he was a man of an ardent temperament and lively imagination, of various culture and talents. He was a mathematician and astronomer; the fame of his skill as a painter too was great. He first made his appearance as a religious reformer near the end of the reign of Sapor I., the Persian king, i.e.,
