expense of Turkey, and allied herself with the latter power in 1771. When Russia and Prussia resolved on the partition of Poland, Maria Theresa was induced to become an accomplice in the spoliation, 1772. Her reign had well-nigh been concluded amid the troubles of another war of succession for the throne of Bavaria. The question was settled through the mediation of France and Russia by the peace of Teschen, 13th May, 1779. In the following year the great queen died on the 29th November, 1780, having earned from her subjects the grateful title of Mother of her country. One strong feature of her character was religious intolerance. For the Jews she had a great aversion; and in the spring of 1745 she commanded them all to quit the Austrian dominions within six months, despite the remonstrances of all her ministers.—(Earl Stanhope's History; Raumer's Contributions to Modern History.)—R. H.
MARIA. See Mary.
MARIAMNE. See Maccabees.
MARIANA, Juan de, a Spanish historian, born at Talavera in 1536. He was a foundling, and early entered the order of jesuits, filling an important post at Rome at the age of twenty-five, and subsequently serving in Sicily, at Paris, and Toledo. The last forty-nine years of his life were devoted almost incessantly to literary labour. He incurred odium by covertly defending the polyglott Bible of Arias Montano. His treatise, "De Rege et Regis Institutione," was held to favour the doctrine of tyrannicide; another treatise, "De Ponderibus et Mensuris," was aimed at the malversations of the duke of Lerma, and the author was subjected to imprisonment and penance on account of it. Another work, "De Morte et Immortalitate," was also visited with an ecclesiastical censure, not the less severe because there was found among his papers a work, "De erroribus quæ in forma Gubernationis Societatis Jesu occurrunt," published long afterwards. We may also notice a collection of seven treatises on theological and other subjects, including one, "De Spectaculis," and one on the Vulgate version of the scriptures. But Mariana's great work is his "Historiæ De Rebus Hispaniæ libri xx." This work, written at first in Latin, was published in 1592, and the Spanish version, including ten more books, appeared in 1609. It begins with the supposed peopling of Spain by Tubal, the son of Japhet, and comes down to the accession of Charles V., to which Mariana added a condensed continuation down to 1621; and there is a further continuation by Sabau and Blanco. It is, says Ticknor, "if not the most trustworthy of annals, at least the most remarkable union of picturesque chronicling with sober history that the world has ever seen." The best edition is that of Ibarra, Madrid, 1780. The work was enlarged in successive editions by his own hand down to the year of his death, which happened in 1623, at the age of eighty-seven.—F. M. W.
MARIANUS, Scotus, a monk and chronicler, born in Scotland in 1028. He entered the abbey of St. Martin at Cologne in 1056, and three years later was ordained a priest at the abbey of Fulda. He died at Mayence in 1086. His memory has been preserved by his "Chronicle," which extends from the commencement of the Christian era to 1083. It was continued by Dodechinus in 1200.
MARIE ANTOINETTE, Queen of France, daughter of Maria Theresa, and of Francis of Lorraine, emperor of Germany, was born at Vienna on the 2nd November, 1755, the day after the earthquake of Lisbon. Her education, she used to complain in after life, was superficial (Metastasio taught her Italian); but Nature had lavished her gifts upon the young princess, whose beauty and grace afterwards elicited the famous apostrophe of Burke. Eight years old, at the peace of Paris (1763), so disastrous to France, Marie Antoinette was fixed on by the French prime minister, Choiseul, as the means of cementing an alliance between France and Austria which, with the Bourbon family compact, would, he hoped, enable France to defy England. The marriage which he proposed between Marie Antoinette and the young prince, afterwards Louis XVI., was approved of by Maria Theresa, and was celebrated in the May of 1770. "Qu'elle est jolie notre dauphine!" was the exclamation of the French peasantry as they welcomed on her way to Paris the young dauphiness, in her fifteenth year, with her expressive features, exquisite complexion, clear blue eyes, light-brown hair, and winning grace of manner. But, with every quality to make her popular, she was disliked by one section of the court as the representative of the Austrian alliance; and by those opposed to the alliance a ready circulation was given to calumnies upon her among a people already grown disloyal. Four years after her marriage, she became queen of France by the death of Louis XV., 10th May, 1774. In twelve years more, slander and libel had done their work so well, that the acquittal of Cardinal de Rohan in the affair of the Diamond Necklace (see Rohan), was celebrated as a popular triumph. The most minute research has resulted in bringing home to Marie Antoinette, in her early years of queenhood, nothing worse than a few pardonable indiscretions, which were magnified into crimes. When the French revolution broke out, the kindhearted if thoughtless queen, already assailed in her private character, was regarded as the chief opponent of the new state of things; and her unpopularity reached its acme. She had not even the satisfaction of seeming the support of those most attached to the ancient regime, for they disliked her negotiations with such leaders of the people as Mirabeau, and afterwards Barnave, by whose aid alone she saw that the cause of royalty could be retrieved, and whom she fascinated into submission and compliance. "Madame," said Mirabeau, a short time before his death, after his first interview with her, in the darkness of the night, in the gardens of St. Cloud—"Madame, the monarchy is saved." The disastrous results of the flight to Varennes, and the influence of the police on the French revolution, have been indicated in our sketch of her husband.—(See Louis XVI.) Throughout the Revolution, if sometimes rash, she was always fearless, nor did she ever forget the wife and mother in the queen. In their worst dangers she sought to cheer as well as to encourage her irresolute husband, and her little dauphin was always the object of her tenderest care. After the 10th of August, 1792, imprisoned in the Temple with her husband, she took her last farewell of him on the morning of his execution, 21st January, 1793. On the 2nd of the following August, she was removed to the Conciergerie, and separated from all whom she loved. On the 14th of October she was brought before the revolutionary tribunal, and tried as "the widow Capet" for the usual "crimes against the republic," comporting herself with queenly dignity. After two days and nights sentence of death was pronounced. She received the sentence and met her fate with her usual courage. On the forenoon of the 16th October, 1793, Marie Antoinette was guillotined in the Place de la Revolution.—F. E.
MARIGNANO, Gian Giacomo Medichino, Marquis of, one of the ablest captains and adventurers of the age of Charles V., born in Milan in 1495 or 1497; died there, 8th November, 1555. His father, Bernardino Medichino or De' Medici, was a steward of the duke of Milan: the affinity to the Florentine Medicis professed by his son is generally discredited. The marquis' career was one of successful over-reaching, violence, and barbarity. It began with the murder of one of the Visconti, at the instigation of the duke of Milan; and ended, after the capture of Siena in 1555, with the hanging of more than five thousand of the inhabitants; many of whom the conqueror pleased himself by spiking with his own hand. The lordship of Musso and Marignano, and a deal of hard fighting for, or sometimes against, Spain, occupied the interim. Pope Pius IV. was his brother.—W. M. R.
MARIN, Michel Ange, a French ecclesiastical author and poet, born on the 23rd December, 1697; died at Avignon on the 3rd April, 1767. He belonged to a noble Genoese family which had settled early in Provence. Entering the order of minorites, he devoted himself to ecclesiastical studies, but had also great facility in the composition of verses. His principal work was "Lives of the Fathers of the Deserts of the East, with their spiritual doctrine and monastic discipline," Avignon, 1761-64, 3 vols. 4to, or 9 vols. 12mo—a more elaborate and complete work than that of Arnauld d'Andilly, and one for which he received complimentary letters from Pope Clement XIII. His other works were religious novels, &c.—P. E. D.
MARINI, Giambattista, named Il Cavaliere Marino, poet, born in Naples, 18th October, 1569; died there, 25th or 26th March, 1625, of strangury. A poet from his boyhood, madly admired, and exciting both by his success and his sarcasms the rage of jealous rivals, Marini led an agitated life, to which an inordinate and miscellaneous passion for the fair sex contributed its quota. Expelled from his father's house, imprisoned in Naples and in Turin, and shot at by a rival poet, Gasparo Murtola; he found refuge in France in 1615, and was loaded with favours.
