orders of the Fronde, which served simply to embroil the nation without leading to any decisive result, were conclusively terminated by the king's majority in 1653. Mazarin once more ruled supreme. Two years afterwards, he contracted a treaty of alliance with Cromwell against Spain. His attention to the French finances had paved the way for great military exertions; and these were rewarded by the famous victory of Dunes, which Turenne achieved in 1658. The result was the treaty of the Pyrenees in the following year, by which France gained Artois, Roussillon, part of Flanders, Hainault, and Luxembourg; while at the same time, a marriage was arranged between Louis and the Infanta Maria Theresa, daughter of Philip IV. of Spain. This, with the exception of a third and closing treaty, also favourable for France, and which he concluded with the duke of Lorraine a few days before his decease, was the last great public work of Mazarin. At the comparatively early age of fifty-nine, he expired in Vincennes on the 9th of March, 1661, meeting death with unshrinking firmness. Of the remarkable ability displayed by Mazarin there cannot be a reasonable doubt. Attempts have indeed been made at different times, and by various individuals, to undervalue his reputation; but that he dinned Louis XIV., that he trained Colbert, and that he detected and overcame De Retz, may well be received as infallible proofs of his penetration, his skill, and his political sagacity. So says one of his biographers, and we cordially endorse the sentiment. Inferior in gigantic grasp of mind to Richelieu, he possessed a manœuvring and diplomatic genius that was emphatically his own. A light and limber shape, intellectually, beside the Titan form of his wondrous predecessor, he looks across two intervening centuries, and tells us what may be done by sleight and subtlety, even when grander elements are wanting: for the latter was the case, in truth, with Mazarin. Constitutionally timid, he was no hero; he had no great inborn ideal of statesmanship to guide him on his path; and his chief glory was that he walked, an apt pupil, in the footsteps of his master. Yet this is no common praise. Although opposed by faction and environed with difficulties, he largely aggrandized the territory of France; and it should never be forgotten that it was his hand that won the prize for which Richelieu commenced the conflict. Such a fact may outweigh some at least of the sins, in themselves rather negative than positive, which are justly chargeable on his government. In person Mazarin was peculiarly handsome; and his accomplishments were, as might be supposed, both numerous and varied. When he chose, his manner could be most fascinating; and herein, doubtless, lay one secret of his extraordinary success. His private character was disgraced by avarice, the master-passion of his nature; and if to this we add an inordinate love of gambling, a painful lack of gratitude, and a repulsive spirit of ostentation and vain-glory in his later years, there are doubtless dark enough shades in the picture. Still he was capable of noble and generous actions, however rarely they were performed; and well and faithfully he served his adopted country.—J. J.
MAZEPPA, Ivan Stepanovitch, a celebrated hetman of the Kossacks, was born about 1640 in Podolia, then subject to the Polish crown. He was of good extraction, and educated amidst the refinements of a court, being page to the learned king, John Casimir. An intrigue with a Polish gentleman's wife led to his expulsion from the country. The tradition which forms the subject of Lord Byron's poem on Mazeppa, avers that the outraged noble seized his wife's seducer, stripped him, tarred and feathered him, bound him on a wild horse from the Ukraine, and sent him forth to what seemed a certain and horrible death. The maddened horse found its way to its native regions, where some Kossacks saved the handsome page. His talents and superior knowledge gradually secured him pre-eminence among those wild people. When in 1687 the hetman of the tribe who had befriended the stranger, was sent by the regent, Sophia of Russia, to Siberia, Mazeppa was elected to fill his place, and unscrupulously sacrificed the two sons of his predecessor and benefactor. For twenty years he governed his barbarous subjects with energy and skill, and won the confidence of Czar Peter I., especially by his conduct at the capture of Azoff. The czar's reforming intentions were, however, most distasteful to the Kossacks and their chief, who, after an affront received from Peter, secretly resolved to abandon him. With profound dissimulation he conducted negotiations with Stanislaus of Poland and Charles XII. of Sweden, while the czar's faith in him continued unbounded. His treachery was a fatal gift to Charles, whose original plan of marching on Moscow had many more chances of success than his unexpected divergence to the Ukraine. After Peter's victory at Poltava, Mazeppa accompanied Charles in his flight to Bender, and died there in 1709 of poison administered, it is said, by his own hands.—R. H.
MAZOIS, Charles François, French architect and archæologist, was born at Lorient, October 12, 1783. He was a pupil of Percier; then went to Rome, where he distinguished himself; and was invited to Naples by Murat, for whom, amongst other things, he restored the palace of Portici. He was thus led to examine the ruins of Pompeii, to which he eventually devoted himself with untiring assiduity during the years 1809-11, carefully drawing and measuring every building and object of interest. He published the first two volumes of "Les Ruines des Pompéi," folio, in 1813-15; but political and other changes prevented the immediate continuance of this magnificent work—the standard authority on the buried city, and the architectural and archæological subjects associated with it. M. Mazois did not, however, discontinue his labours; and before his death he had prepared most of the remaining plates and much of the text. The two concluding volumes were published under the care of MM. Gau and Barré in 1838. M. Mazois also wrote a popular description of a Roman house—"Le Palais de Scaurus," 4to, with twelve plates, 1819; second edition, 1822; third, 1839. Besides these important works he published some lives of architects in the Galerie Française, and a few professional memoirs. His architectural labours are not very important. He built several houses, and restored the church of St. Remi at Rheims. In 1819 he was appointed one of the four inspectors of civil buildings. He was created a knight of the legion of honour in 1823; and died at Paris, October 31, 1826.—J. T—e.
MAZZINGHI, Joseph, a musician, born in London in 1765, was descended from the ancient Corsican family of Chevalier Tedice Mazzinghi, who in the year 1697 was attached in a diplomatic situation to the court of Naples. Other branches of the same family settled at Florence, Pisa, and Leghorn. Tomaso Mazzinghi, father of Joseph, appears in the year 1765 to have been established in London as a merchant. He married Madame Frederick, sister to Madame Cassandra Wynne, the wife of Thomas Wynne, Esq., a gentleman of considerable landed property in South Wales. This latter lady, whose rare musical talents as an amateur were highly appreciated at the court of Versailles, and particularly so by Maria Antoinette, early discovered in her infant nephew evident proof of a musical disposition, as did also his father, who was an eminent performer on the violin; and in consequence he was placed under the celebrated J. C. Bach, who at that time was music-master to Queen Charlotte. The progress of the young tyro was such, that on the demise of his father, being then but ten years of age, he was appointed organist of the Portuguese chapel, and subsequently received instructions from three celebrated composers at that time in England—Bertolini, Sacchini, and Anfossi. At the age of nineteen he was appointed composer and director of the music at the Italian opera, which post he filled for several years; and during that period brought out his opera, entitled "Il Tesoro." He likewise composed several ballets for the opera, among which his "L'Amour et Psyche" was much admired. After remaining for several seasons at the Italian opera, he determined to devote his attention to English opera, and accordingly produced several pieces at the theatres royal, Drury Lane and Covent Garden, some of which enjoyed considerable popularity. Independently of being for many years so much occupied as a composer, he had very extensive practice as a teacher of the pianoforte; and his works testify, by the distinguished names to his dedications, that his pupils were chiefly among the principal nobility. He retired from the profession about 1830, and was henceforth known as the Count Mazzinghi—a title he had purchased from some foreign power. He died in 1844; and being of the Romish religion, was buried with great funeral pomp at the chapel in Moorfields, London.—E. F. R.
* MAZZINI, Joseph, born at Genoa in 1805. Son of a physician and professor of the university, Joseph Mazzini was educated for a barrister; but his genius and his inclination led him when quite a youth into the fields of literature. With Monti Italian literature had reacquired the splendour of Dante's style; with Foscolo it had become a mirror of morality and a school of patriotism; and with Manzoni a study of the intimate life of the people. These were Mazzini's three masters. His first writings
