and preside in the councils of the state. Thus grandly descended, and himself possessed of conspicuous merits, Michael Palæologus might well aspire to the attainment of supreme power. On the death, in 1259, of Theodore Lascaris II., who reigned at Nice—which principality his father, Vatatzes, had enlarged to the dimensions of an empire—his son, John Lascaris, was left a minor at the early age of eight years. Profiting by the fair field here opened up to his ambition, Palaeologus managed to assume the reins of government; craftily abstaining, however, in the first instance, from any step that might seem to shake the hereditary rights of the boy-monarch; and, under the title of great duke, merely professing to watch over the best interests of the realm during the dangers of a long minority. But while it may be admitted that his sway proved beneficial for the country, it was still chiefly for his own aggrandizement that he ruled. Bidding on all hands for popular favour, and already wielding paramount influence by the force of his undoubted intellect, he at last realized the object of his desires and received the crown of Nice from the hands of the patriarch Arsenius, on the 1st of January, 1260. John Lascaris was still nominally associated with him; yet thenceforth, to all intents and purposes, Palæologus reigned alone. The commencement of his imperial regime was signalized by the restoration of Constantinople to the Greek dominion. That capital, which had been since 1204 in the possession of the Latins, was recaptured for Michael Palæologus by his favourite general, Alexius, on whom he had bestowed at his coronation the title of Cæsar. Making himself master of the city by an exploit sufficiently bold and difficult, the victorious Cæsar was hailed with favour by the inhabitants, who still remembered their ancient sovereigns; and Baldwin, the last Latin ruler of Constantinople, escaped in a Venetian galley, and sought refuge on the shores of Italy. The intelligence of the memorable event, which occurred July 25, 1261, was received by Michael and his subjects with astonishment and joy. Twenty days after the expulsion of the Latins, Palæologus made his triumphant entry into the newly-recovered capital. There his prudence and sagacity, as well as the rewards he bestowed on his own immediate followers, and the clemency he evinced towards the body of the people, tended yet more firmly to establish his influence and consolidate his dominion. But the picture has its dark side also. The anxieties that haunt all usurpers urged him to secure the throne; and his nominal colleague, John Lascaris, became the victim of his criminal ambition. He did not, indeed, deprive the latter of existence; but, perpetrating an imperfect iniquity perhaps even more revolting, he destroyed his eyesight, and removed him to a distant castle, where he spent many years in privacy and oblivion. A crime so atrocious justly roused the hostility of the clergy, and the inflexible Arsenius dared to pronounce against him the sentence of excommunication; nor was it until after the lapse of six years that the emperor, on the expression of his profound penitence, was restored to the communion of the church. Nevertheless, the strong hand of Michael maintained its wonted authority over the bulk of his subjects, and upheld with vigour and resolution the fabric of the Eastern empire. Among the other events of his reign may be mentioned his mission of two Greek bishops to the council of Lyons, who formed a treaty of union between the Eastern and Western churches, which, however, only lasted during his own lifetime; and his instigation of the revolt of Sicily in 1280, which terminated in the fall of Charles of Anjou, king of Naples, the enemy of Palæologus, and in the total ruin of the designs which that prince cherished against the Byzantine empire. The momentous reign of Michael, whose character, as Gibbon truly observes, "displayed the virtues and vices that belong to the founder of a new dynasty," ended with his death in 1282. He was succeeded associated with him in the government, and by whom the union of the Greek and Latin churches was dissolved.—J. J
MICHAELANG. DE CARAVAGGIO. See Caravaggio.
MICHAEL A. DELLA BATT. See Cerquozzi.
MICHAELIS, Johann David, a member of an illustrious family, nephew of Johann Heinrich, was born at Halle in 1717. He was educated first at the orphan school, and then at the university of Halle, and on the completion of his studies he entered the christian ministry. In 1739 he became assistant-lecturer to his father. During a visit to this country in 1741, he secured the friendship of Dr. Lowth and other English scholars, and officiated for a period in the German chapel at St. James' palace. On his return to Germany he was in 1745 appointed a professor in the university of Göttingen on the selection of Münchausen, and in this situation he passed most of his life. Michaelis had in 1756 a principal hand in planning that learned expedition to the East which was conducted by Carsten Niebuhr. In 1763 Frederick invited him to Prussia, but he declined. In 1775 the king of Sweden made him a knight of the polar star. In 1786 he was chosen an aulic counsellor in his own country, and he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of London in 1789. He died in 1791. The works of Michaelis are numerous and learned. History, philosophy, and biblical literature were his favourite studies. His treatises on Hebrew, Chaldee, Syriac, and Arabic grammar are still not without their value, and his "Supplementa ad Lexica Hebraica" in six quarto parts has been of great use to subsequent Hebraists in their lexical compilations. His "Spicilegium Geographiæ exteræ post Bochartum," in two quarto parts, was a careful embodiment of useful information for its period. His "Orient. und Exeget. Bibliothek" was such a miscellaneous repository as German scholars used to delight in. His two principal works are his "Einleitung in das N. Testament," and his "Mosaisches Recht." The "Introduction to the New Testament" has been translated into English by Bishop Marsh, with translator's notes to the first part of the work. The "Introduction" is learned and full, but occasionally diffuse and redundant in its erudite hypotheses and ingenious conjectures. The second work was translated in 1814 by Dr. Smith of Garioch, Aberdeenshire, under the title of "Commentaries on the Laws of Moses." The treatise is full of information, the laws are illustrated strikingly from a great variety of sources by way both of contrast and parallel, and the superior wisdom, considerateness, and adaptation to the people of the Mosaic code are abundantly demonstrated. That their social progress and physical well-being were secured by many of the statutes is placed beyond a doubt; but the religious aspect and bearing of the Mosaic legislation are often overlooked, its higher divine origin is forgotten, and a rationalistic tone pervades the discussions. There are portions of it on the Hebrew marriage law so gross and prurient that though they were delivered to a German class the English translator had to render them into Latin, as he could not present them in honest English. Michaelis also wrote a letter to Sir John Pringle of Stitchel on the seventy weeks of Daniel; London, 1773.—J. E.
MICHAELIS, Johann Heinrich, was born at Klettenburg in Hohenstein in 1668, and received his education successively at Nordhausen, at Leipsic, and at Halle. At the latter university he taught Greek, Hebrew, and Chaldee, with great reputation; and here he published "Conamina brevioris Manuductionis ad Doctrinam de Accentibus Hebræorum Prosaicis." In this work he received the assistance of Professor Francke. He remained at Halle until 1693, when he temporarily quitted it for the purpose of instructing some of his relations, returning to his post in 1694. After adding Syrian, Samaritan, and Arabic to his stock of knowledge, he went to Frankfort in 1698, and acquired Ethiopic under the direction of Job Ludolf. Appointed keeper of the Halle library in 1707, he filled various other academical offices, and died March 18, 1738. A complete list of his writings, which were exceedingly numerous, and which treated exclusively of philological and theological subjects, is given in Moreri.—W. J. P.
MICHAUD, Joseph, a French poet and historian, was born at Albens in Savoy in 1767; died at Passy 30th September, 1839. He belonged to an old family, formerly distinguished in the use of arms; but his father, to restore the family fortune, betook himself to law. Joseph was educated at Bourg en Bresse, and soon after leaving college commenced his literary career by writing a "Voyage Litteraire" to Mont Blanc; soon followed by an eastern tale on the poetic origin of gold and silver mines. In 1790 he went to Paris, took the royalist side, and edited the Gazette Universelle. During the Revolution he led rather a scrambling life, and had no small difficulty in procuring support. In 1794 he founded the Quotidienne, with Rippet and Riche; and the journal was immediately successful. He was arrested, but escaped, and in absence was condemned to death. On the establishment of the consulate he wrote the "Death of a great Lady" (the republic), and addressed some pieces to Bonaparte, for which he was imprisoned in the Temple. On his release he wrote a "History of Mysore," and various other works. In 1811 he originated the Biographie Universelle; and in 1814 became a member of the Academy. His principal work
