hearts and feelings." General Munro's health had sustained such severe injury from his extraordinary exertions, that on the restoration of peace he resigned all his commissions, civil as well as military, and re-embarked for England in January, 1819. He had scarcely reached home when he was appointed governor of Madras, and was soon after promoted to the rank of major general, and created a K.C.B. After spending only six months in this country, he set out once more for India, which he reached in May, 1820. He discharged the duties of his laborious office with characteristic industry, wisdom, and integrity, and was successful both in preserving the tranquillity of the country and in increasing the public revenues, while his benevolent exertions to promote the welfare of the natives procured him the appellation of Father of the people. He contributed greatly to the successful termination of the Burmese war, both by his judicious counsels and his extraordinary zeal and energy in sending a supply of troops from the Madras army. His services were acknowledged by his elevation to the rank of a baronet in 1825. He had long been anxious to retire from office, but had been induced to continue at his post by the urgent request of the court of directors. At length, in 1827, he obtained liberty to resign; but while waiting the arrival of his successor he was attacked with cholera near Gooty, and died on the 6th of July. "Europe," said Mr. Canning, "never produced a more accomplished statesman, nor India, so fertile in heroes, a more skilful soldier." Sir Thomas left two sons, the elder of whom succeeded him in his title.—J. T.
MUNSTER, Sebastian, a distinguished orientalist and cosmographer of the Reformation-period, was born in 1489 at Ingelheim in the Palatinate, and studied at Heidelberg and Tübingen. In 1529 he forsook the Franciscan order and went over to the Reformation. He was professor of Hebrew and Old Testament theology first in Heidelberg and afterwards in Basle, where he died of the pest in 1552. His "Cosmographie" was his principal work, and appeared at Basle in 1550. It was highly valued, and was translated into almost all the languages of Europe. He was the author besides of a Hebrew and Chaldee grammar; also of a dictionary of both these languages, and of several commentaries both on the Old Testament and the New. He translated the Old Testament into Latin, and edited several rabbinical works. He occupied himself also with mathematics and astronomy, but his publications in these branches added nothing to the sum of human knowledge. In his "Cosmographie" he was assisted by several contributors. Among these was the Scot, Alexander Alesius, who sent him an account of Edinburgh, his native city, which is the oldest printed account in existence of that city, and was considered curious enough to be reprinted in the Bannatyne Miscellany, with interesting notes from the pen of Mr. David Laing. Munster was styled on his tombstone at Basle the Esdras and Strabo of Germany.—P. L.
MUNTER, Balthazar, born at Lübeck in 1735, was in 1760 appointed preacher at Gotha. Three years afterwards he was made superintendent at Tonna, and subsequently he became preacher to a German congregation at Copenhagen. He is best known by his celebrated account of the conversion of the Count Struensee, which has been translated into several languages. He also published sermons and spiritual songs. He died at Copenhagen in 1793.—D. W. R.
MUNZER, Thomas, a German fanatic and mystic of the Reformation-period, was born in 1490 at Stalberg in the Hartz. In 1515 his name appears as a master of arts and bachelor of theology, which degrees he probably attained at the university of Leipsic; and he seems to have early imbibed the mystical notions of Joachim von Floris, Suso, and Tauler. He was naturally of a restless and turbulent spirit, and early developed a genius for conspiracy and plotting. When Luther began the war with Rome Munzer espoused his cause with the utmost ardour; but it was only the negative side of the movement that he valued; with the positive doctrines of the reformer he had no sympathy, and in a short time he attacked Luther, and Luther was compelled in self-defence to attack him, with the greatest energy. He first brought himself into public notice at Zwickau, where he was appointed preacher in 1520. His very first sermon made a sensation in the town, and divided it into the two parties of his admirers and his enemies. He was speedily engaged in violent controversies with the monks, with his colleagues, with the magistrates, and with the official of the diocese; he played the demagogue, and stirred up the clothworkers of the place to open revolt; and peace was only restored by driving him from the town, and imprisoning a crowd of his followers. This was in 1521. In the same year he visited Bohemia, where sympathy with Luther's movements was ardent, and he was at first well received; but a violent manifesto which he published brought him into trouble, and he was compelled to leave the country. In 1522 he was in Wittemberg, where Carlstadt and the prophets of Zwickau, availing themselves of Luther's absence, were introducing violent reforms; and Carlstadt's influence and example had no doubt some share in shaping his subsequent conduct. When Luther unexpectedly left Wartburg, and returning to Wittemberg publicly condemned Carlstadt's proceedings, Munzer learned to regard the reformer as the most formidable obstacle in the way of his violent designs: and he was no sooner settled in Alstedt in Thuringia, where he obtained a pastoral appointment in 1523, than he went to work by means of secret presses, from which he issued a multitude of pamphlets and fly-sheets, to destroy the credit and authority of the man who more than ever, by his recent heroic stand at Worms, had become the idol of Germany; and at the same time to stir up throughout the empire a spirit of sedition and revolt against all authority in church and state. Luther acquainted the Elector Frederick with his designs and practices, and in 1524 he was driven away from Alstedt. He then betook himself to Mühlhausen, where he found a like-minded man in Heinrich Pfeiffer, with whom he continued the war with increased fury against Luther, and commenced anew his democratic agitation among the masses of the people. Just at this time the peasants of South Germany were in a ferment of discontent, which broke out in 1525 into open revolt. The flame spread instantly to Thuringia, where the soil had been only too well prepared for it by Munzer's seditious propaganda. Mühlhausen became the centre of the Thuringian revolt; the magistrates were deposed, and Munzer put himself at the head of the infuriated people. The issue was inevitable. Duke George of Saxony and other princes marched their forces against the revolters, and extinguished the devouring flame of fanatical sedition in a torrent of blood Munzer and Pfeiffer were taken prisoners at Frankenhausen where the battle was fought, and were led forth to public execution in Mühlhausen. In the same year Melancthon wrote his History of Thomas Munzer, the beginner of the Thuringian revolt, that all the world might know how little the Reformation was to blame for that catastrophe. But this timely precaution availed little; for everywhere, in the mouths of the papists, Munzer became the popular argument against Luther, although Luther and Munzer had both done their utmost to let the world know how utterly they were opposed to each other in their principles and objects.—P. L.
MURAD. See Amurath.
MURAD BEY, a celebrated chief of the mamelukes, was born in Circassia about 1750. Carried off and sold into slavery in Egypt, he passed into the hands of the chief of the Egyptian beys, and by craft and courage rose to share with a colleague the virtual sovereignty of Egypt, nominally under the sway of the Porte. The French, in their invasion of Egypt in 1798, found Murad Bey one of their most formidable antagonists. He was defeated with his mamelukes at the battle of the Pyramids, but displayed in it a courage and skill which were recognized by Napoleon. Murad was pursued into Upper Egypt by Desaix, and gave him a great deal of trouble. When Kleber succeeded Desaix, he gained over Murad to the French alliance. Menou, however, Kleber's successor, treated Murad with contumely, and the mameluke proclaimed a neutrality, when his assistance might have been invaluable to the French. But after the landing of the English in Egypt, and the discomfiture of the French, Murad, forgetful of his grievances, hastened to support his allies. Before he could effect anything he died suddenly of the plague, on the 22nd April, 1801.—F. E.
MURAT, Joachim, one of the most distinguished of Napoleon's marshals, and elevated by his imperial chief to the throne of Naples, was born at a village in Perigord in the year 1767. His origin was very humble, his father being simply a country innkeeper, who had, however, acted as a steward to the great family of the Talleyrands. Through their interest Joachim was placed at the college of Cahors, with a view to his training for the church. But between the church and the future soldier there was a gulf no training could obliterate. His tendencies and his behaviour completely disqualified him for the ecclesiastical profession, and ere long he enlisted in a regiment of chasseurs, from
