conflicts, and of whose prowess he bore home a glowing account. At length he reached the Atlantic, 20th August, 1541, having navigated the Amazon for above one thousand leagues, and after touching at the island of Cubagua returned to Spain, bearing a quantity of gold and emeralds which Pizzaro had intrusted to him. Charles V. conferred on Orellana the government of the newly-discovered territory. He returned with a small squadron in 1544, and ascended the river for about one hundred leagues; but nearly all his companions perished, and he himself expired in the territory of Monvalegre in 1550.—F. M. W.
ORELLI, Johann Kaspar, a distinguished Swiss philologist, was born at Zurich, 10th February, 1787, and was carefully educated. In compliance with the wishes of his father he took orders in 1806, but soon forsook the clerical profession for that of a teacher. He first found employment with Pestalozzi at Yverdun, then at Bergamo, and afterwards at Chur. In 1819 he obtained the chair of eloquence at Zurich, and became a pillar and ornament of this newly-founded university. He died January 6, 1849. In his editions of Horace, Tacitus, and Cicero, great erudition is combined with elegant taste and critical acumen. He also joined Baiter and Sauppe in the well-known edition of Plato. Besides these exegetical works, his "Onomasticon Tullianum," 3 vols.; and his "Inscriptionum Latinarum Selectarum Collectio," 2 vols., deserve most honourable mention.—K. E.
ORESME, Nicolas, born at Caen in the fourteenth century, studied at the college of Navarre, of which he became grandmaster in 1355, and is said to have greatly raised its reputation. He was archdeacon of Bayeux, then dean of Rouen; and in 1363 was deputed to Urban V. at Avignon to persuade him not to return to Rome. A discourse he made at Avignon against the scandals of the papal court was published by M. Flaccius Illyricus. In 1377 Charles V. made him bishop of Lisieux, and he died in 1382. He was a promoter of literature A French version of the Bible is ascribed to him, but on doubtful authority.—B. H. C
ORFILA, Matthieu Joseph Bonaventure, a distinguished physician and toxicologist, was born at Mahon in the island of Minorca, 24th April, 1787. Intended for maritime life, his mind was early directed to the study of mathematics. He went to sea for a short time with a merchant vessel, and it was intended by his friends that he should ultimately enter the Spanish navy. He, however, soon relinquished the profession of a sailor, and turned to the cultivation of the natural sciences. He entered at the university of Valencia in 1804. Whilst a student at Valencia he applied himself eagerly to the study of the works of the great chemists and natural philosophers of the day, and so highly distinguished himself at a public examination instituted to test the standard of teaching in the university, that the junta of Barcelona sent him at their own expense to Paris, for the purpose of studying chemistry and its application to the arts. He arrived in Paris in 1807; but war breaking out between France and Spain his annual allowance of fifteen hundred francs ceased, and he became dependent on an uncle established at Marseilles, until the period of his graduation. At the expiration of his studentship Orfila passed a brilliant examination, and obtained the degree of M.D. He then began to lecture privately on chemistry, forensic medicine, and anatomy for his support, and at the same time commenced those researches on toxicology on which his fame mainly rests. Some of the most eminent names in French medicine were to he found amongst those of his pupils. Amongst them were those of M. Jules Cloquet, M. Beclard, sen., and M. Edwards. Orfila's fame soon increased; he was early appointed corresponding member of the Institute, and in 1819 was chosen professor of forensic medicine at the Faculty of Medicine. The latter appointment was partly due to the influence of the celebrated Hallé, who though very ill, had himself carried to the medical school to vote for Orfila. He lectured on forensic medicine for four years, and for twenty-nine years on medical chemistry. In 1816 he was appointed physician to Louis XVIII., and on the constitution of the Academy of Medicine he was one, and the youngest, of its seventy original members. The revolution of 1830 opened to him a splendid path of honour and wealth. He was successively chosen dean of the Faculty, member of the council-general of hospitals, and member of the council-general of the department. He became naturalized, and was appointed a member of the council of public instruction. As dean of the Faculty of Medicine he introduced various and great reforms, amongst which was the foundation of preparatory schools of medicine in the principal large towns. He also so enriched the anatomical and pathological museum of the Faculty, that his name was attached to it by the government as a lasting memorial to his honour. His discoveries in toxicology were recognized throughout Europe, and his evidence was constantly in requisition for the guidance of legal tribunals. The revolution of 1848 deprived Orfila of all his appointments, except his professorship. This blow, and the illness of a son, preyed on his health. After lecturing on March 11th, 1853, he was seized with pneumonia, and died, universally honoured and lamented, on the 12th of the same month. A short time before his death he presented £4800 to different public institutions, amongst which were the museum which bears his name, the Faculty of Medicine, and the School of Pharmacy, for the establishment of prizes, and an institution for the benefit of decayed medical men and their families, of which he was the founder. His principal works are, "Forensic Medicine," "Elements of Medical Chemistry," and his treatise on poisons, all of which have gone through several editions.—F. C. W.
ORIANI, Barnaba, an eminent Italian mathematician, astronomer, and ecclesiastic, was born at Garegnano, near Milan, on the 17th of July, 1752; and died at Milan on the 12th of November, 1832. He was the child of poor parents, but received a liberal education through the care of the monks of a neighbouring Carthusian convent, by whom his talents had been remarked. About 1775 he was appointed an assistant at the observatory of Brera, and about 1776 or 1777, third astronomer in that observatory, his colleagues being Reggio and Cesaris. In 1787, those three astronomers commenced a trigonometrical survey of Italy. During the French republican government of Lombardy, Oriani was intrusted with important scientific duties of a public kind, such as the presidency of the commission for reforming the weights and measures. In 1801 Piazzi, having discovered the first of the asteroids, Ceres, sent his observations for redaction and calculation to Oriani, who determined from them the position and figure of that body's orbit. Upon the establishment of the French empire, Oriani had conferred on him by Napoleon the rank of count, the office of senator, and the order of the iron crown. He afterwards measured, along with Cesaris, the arc of the meridian between Rome and Rimini, and along with Zach, that between Milan and Genoa. He retained the post of director of the observatory of Milan until his death. He published, chiefly in the records of that observatory, and partly in the Memoirs of the Italian Institute, several highly important investigations on astronomical and mathematical subjects, of which the most remarkable was a system of spheroidal trigonometry.—W. J. M. R.
ORIBASIUS, a celebrated physician of the fourth century, was born at Pergamus, or according to some at Sardis. He was bred in the school of Zeno the Cyprian. Eunapius states that he was the greatest scholar and physician of his time, and a very engaging and agreeable man in conversation. He was the friend and physician of the Emperor Julian, and is said to have accompanied him into the East, and to have attended him at the time of his death. Julian made him quæstor of Constantinople. After Julian's death he fell into disgrace, was deprived of his estate, and banished by Valentinian II. Amongst the rude people to whom he was banished his skill and courage procured him divine honours. He was ultimately restored by the Roman emperor, and flourished in reputation and riches till about the year 400. At the request of the Emperor Julian he wrote his seventy-two books of "Collections," which he compiled from Galen and other physicians. The first fifteen of these books remain, and two others treating of anatomy. He wrote an epitome of his great work in nine books for his son, Eustathius. He also wrote four books on medicines and distempers to his friend Eunapius. His treatment consisted principally of evacuants and tonics, and he is one of the earnest writers who recommended bleeding by scarification—a method of treatment which he practised on himself when suffering from the plague in Asia.—F. C. W.
ORIGEN, surnamed Adamantius, one of the most eminent of the christian fathers, was born at Alexandria in the year 185. His father Leonidas was a christian, and suffered martyrdom for his zealous attachment to Christ in 202. Educated with care from his earliest years, Origen grew up imbued with sound learning and familiar with the sacred writings, and such was his devotedness to Christianity that he could hardly be restrained from sharing in his father's martyrdom. Having obtained the means, through the generosity of a christian lady, of devoting himself to study, he made such progress that when scarcely
